Oman

The oldest known written mention of "Oman" is found on a tomb in the Mleiha Archeological Center in the United Arab Emirates, dated to around 220 BCE, where it is written as 𐩲𐩣𐩬 in Ancient South Arabian and 𐡏𐡌𐡍 in Aramaic.

The name "Oman" is believed to predate Pliny the Elder's reference to "Omana" and Ptolemy's reference to "Omanon". (Ὄμανον ἐμπόριον in Greek).

Beginning in the 19th century, most writers localised Omana with Sohar. This changed, however, with the advent of archaeology.

The city or region is commonly etymologised in Arabic as deriving from ʿāmin or ʿamūn, meaning 'settled' people, in contrast to the nomadic Bedouins. While some theories propose an eponymous founder—such as Oman bin Ibrahim al-Khalil, Oman bin Siba' bin Yaghthan bin Ibrahim, and Oman bin Qahtan—others suggest that "Oman" originates from a valley in Ma'rib, Yemen. This valley is presumed to be the ancestral homeland of the Azd, an ancient Bedouin tribe mentioned in pre-Islamic inscriptions, particularly in Sabaic inscriptions from the reign of Sha'r Awtar (210–230 CE).

Oman has been known by other names. The ancient Sumerians and the Mesopotamians called it "Magan", a reference to the Magan civilisation, while the Persians called it Mazun, derived from the word "Muzn", meaning clouds and abundant flowing water, which explains the establishment and prosperity of agriculture in Oman since ancient times and the stability and civilisation that accompanied it. The name "Oman" is mentioned in Arabic sources as an independent region. Al-Istakhri and Ibn Hawqal referred to this in their sayings: "Oman is a region with independent regions with spacious people". Ibn Khaldun was more explicit in his definition of Oman. He mentioned it among the Arab regions that emerged as independent states in the Arabian Peninsula, namely Yemen, the Hijaz, Hadhramaut, Ash Shihr, and Oman. He described its system of government, saying that it was a "sole sultanic region."

=== Prehistory ===

Al Aybut Al Awal, in the Dhofar Governorate of Oman, a site was discovered in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools, belonging to a regionally specific African lithic industry—the late Nubian Complex—known previously only from the northeast and Horn of Africa. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old. This supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene.

In recent years surveys have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites on the eastern coast. Main Palaeolithic sites include Saiwan-Ghunaim in the Barr al-Hikman. Archaeological remains are particularly numerous for the Bronze Age Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods. At the archaeological sites of Bat, Al-Janah, and Al-Ayn wheel-turned pottery, hand-made stone vessels, metals industry artifacts, and monumental architecture have been preserved.

==== Magan civilisation ====

Sumerian tablets referred to Oman as "Magan" and in the Akkadian language "Makan", a name that links Oman's ancient copper resources. This is a clear reference to the Magan civilisation, an ancient region in what is now modern day Oman and United Arab Emirates, which was referred to in Sumerian cuneiform texts of around 2300 BCE and existed until 550 BCE as a source of copper and diorite for Mesopotamia. There are six periods of human settlement with distinctive behaviours in Northern Oman before Islam, which include the Hafit period from 3,200 to 2,600 BCE, the Umm Al Nar culture from 2,600 to 2,000 BCE, and the Wadi Suq culture from 2,000 to 1,300 BCE.

During the 8th century BCE, it is believed that the Yaarub, the descendant of Qahtan, ruled the entire region of Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin Abd-Shams (Saba) bin Yashjub (Yaman) bin Yarub bin Qahtan later ruled Oman. It is thus believed that the Yaarubah were the first settlers in Oman from Yemen.

In the 1970s and 1980s, scholars like John C. Wilkinson believed by virtue of oral history that in the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids exerted control over the Omani peninsula, most likely ruling from a coastal centre such as Suhar. The northern half of Oman was presumably part of the Maka satrapy of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. By the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great, the satrapy may have existed in some form.

Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage named eponymously from Samad al-Shan. In the northern part of the Oman Peninsula the Recent Pre-Islamic Period begins in the 3rd century BCE and extends into the 3rd century CE. Whether or not Persians brought south-eastern Arabia under their control is a moot point, since the lack of Persian archaeological finds speak against this belief. Armand-Pierre Caussin de Perceval suggests that Shammir bin Wathil bin Himyar recognised the authority of Cyrus the Great over Oman in 536 BCE.

The Omani Kingdom was subdued by the Sasanian Empire's forces under Vahrez during the Aksumite–Persian wars. The 4,000-strong Sasanian garrison was headquartered at Jamsetjerd/Jamshedgird (modern Jebel Gharabeh, also known as Felej al-Sook)

Over centuries, From the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BCE, waves of Semitic speaking peoples migrated from central and western Arabia to the east. The most important of these migrating tribes are known as Azd. they made a living by fishing, farming, herding or stock breeding. Further, many present-day Omani families trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia. Arab migration to Oman started from northern-western and south-western Arabia and those who chose to settle had to compete with the indigenous population for the best arable land. When Arab tribes started to migrate to Oman, there were two distinct groups. One group, a segment of the Azd tribe migrated from Yemen in 120/200 CE following the collapse of Marib Dam, while the other group migrated a few centuries before the birth of Islam from Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia), named Nizari. Other historians believe that the Yaarubah from Qahtan, which belong to an older branch, were the first settlers of Oman from Yemen, and then came the Azd.

The Azd settlers in Oman are descendants of Nasr bin Azd and were later known as "the Al-Azd of Oman". Seventy years after the first Azd migration, another branch of Alazdi under Malik bin Fahm, the founder of Kingdom of Tanukhites on the west of Euphrates, is believed to have settled in Oman. According to Al-Kalbi, Malik bin Fahm was the first settler of Alazd. He is said to have first settled in Qalhat. By this account, Malik, with an armed force of more than 6000 men and horses, fought against the Marzban, who served an ambiguously named Persian king in the battle of Salut in Oman and eventually defeated the Persian forces. This account is, however, semi-legendary and seems to condense multiple centuries of migration and conflict as well as an amalgamation of various traditions from not only the Arab tribes but also the region's original inhabitants.

During the 7th century CE, Omanis came in contact with and accepted Islam, with consolidation taking place in the Ridda Wars in 632. The conversion of Omanis to Islam is ascribed to Amr ibn al-As, who was sent by the Islamic prophet Muhammad during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Hisma). Amr was dispatched to meet with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman. They appear to have readily embraced Islam.

Following the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632, a series of campaigns launched by the Rashidun Caliphate against tribes that had renounced their allegiance to Medina. In Oman, the rebellion was led by Laqit ibn Malik al-Azdi, known as Dhu al-Taj ("The Crowned One"), who seized control of much of the country. In response, the caliph Abu Bakr dispatched forces under Hudhayfa ibn Mihsan and Arfaja ibn Harthama, joined by the Omani rulers Jaifar and Abd. The opposing armies met at the Battle of Dibba (now Dibba Al-Hisn, United Arab Emirates) where the rebels were decisively defeated. The victory restored Rashidun authority over Oman and secured the region's incorporation into the expanding Islamic state.

Omani Azd used to travel to Basra for trade, which was a centre of Islam, during the Umayyad empire. Omani Azd were granted a section of Basra, where they could settle and attend to their needs. Many of the Omani Azd who settled in Basra became wealthy merchants and, under their leader al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra, started to expand their influence of power eastwards towards Khorasan.

Ibadism originated in Basra through its founder, Abd Allah ibn Ibad, as a moderate branch of the Kharijites, an Islamic sect that split from the Muhakkima. These groups initially supported Imam Ali during the First Fitna but turned away after rejecting arbitration at the Battle of Siffin in AD 657. around the year 650; the Omani Azd in Iraq would subsequently adopt this as their predominant faith. Later, al-Hajjaj, the governor of Iraq, came into conflict with the Ibadis, which forced them back to Oman. Among those who returned was the scholar Jaber bin Zaid. His return (and the return of many other scholars) greatly enhanced the Ibadhi movement in Oman. Alhajjaj also made an attempt to subjugate Oman, then ruled by Suleiman and Said (the sons of Abbad bin Julanda). Alhajjaj dispatched Mujjaah bin Shiwah, who was confronted by Said bin Abbad. This confrontation devastated Said's army, after which he and his forces retreated to the Jebel Akhdar (mountains). Mujjaah and his forces went after Said, successfully flushing them out from hiding in Wadi Mastall. Mujjaah later moved towards the coast, where he confronted Suleiman bin Abbad. The battle was won by Suleiman's forces. Alhajjaj, however, sent another force (under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman); he eventually won the war, taking over the governance of Oman.

The first elective Imamate of Oman is believed to have been established shortly after the fall of the Umayyad Dynasty in 750/755 CE, when Janaħ bin ʕibadah Alħinnawi was elected. Other scholars claim that Janaħ bin Ibadah served as a Wāli (governor) under the Umayyad dynasty (and later ratified the Imamate), and that Julanda bin Masud was the first elected Imam of Oman, in 751 CE. The first Imamate reached its peak power in the ninth century CE. The Imamate established a maritime empire whose fleet controlled the Gulf, during the time when trade with the Abbasid Dynasty, the Far East, and Africa flourished. The authority of the Imams started to decline due to power struggles, the constant interventions of Abbasid, and the rise of the Seljuk Empire.

During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Omani coast was in the sphere of influence of the Seljuk Empire. They were expelled in 1154, when the Nabhani dynasty came to power. The Nabhanis ruled as muluk, or kings, while the Imams were reduced to largely symbolic significance. The capital of the dynasty was Bahla. The Banu Nabhan controlled the trade in frankincense on the overland route via Sohar to the Yabrin oasis, and then north to Bahrain, Baghdad and Damascus. The mango-tree was introduced to Oman during the time of Nabhani dynasty, by Al-Falah bin Muhsin. The Nabhani dynasty started to deteriorate in 1507 when Portuguese colonisers captured the coastal city of Muscat, and gradually extended their control along the coast up to Sohar in the north and down to Sur in the southeast. Other historians argue that the Nabhani dynasty ended earlier in 1435 CE when conflicts between the dynasty and Hinawis arose, which led to the restoration of the elective Imamate.

A decade after Vasco da Gama succeeded in his voyage around the Cape of Good Hope and to India in 1497–1498, Afonso de Albuquerque captured Hormuz and Portugal governed Oman for a 143-year period, from 1507 to 1650. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese built up and fortified Muscat. Remnants of Portuguese architectural style still exist. Later, several more Omani cities were colonised in the early 16th century by the Portuguese, to control the entrances of the Persian Gulf and trade in the region as part of a web of fortresses in the region, from Basra to Hormuz Island.

The Ottomans contested the Persian Gulf and Oman from the Portuguese during the sixteenth century. In 1552 an Ottoman fleet briefly captured the fort in Muscat, during their fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, but soon departed after destroying the surroundings of the fortress. At the Battle of the Gulf of Oman, the Portuguese decisively routed an Ottoman fleet.

Later in the 17th century, using its bases in Oman, Portugal engaged in the largest naval battle ever fought in the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese force fought against a combined armada of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and English East India Company supported by the Safavid empire. The result of the battle was a draw but it resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf.

During the 17th century, the Omanis were reunited by the Yaruba Imams. Nasir bin Murshid became the first Yaarubah Imam in 1624, when he was elected in Rustaq. Imam Nasir and his successor succeeded in the 1650s in expelling the Portuguese from their coastal domains in Oman. The Omanis over time established a maritime empire that pursued the Portuguese and expelled them from all their possessions in East Africa, which were then incorporated into the Omani domains. To capture Zanzibar Saif bin Sultan, the Imam of Oman, pressed down the Swahili Coast. A major obstacle to his progress was Fort Jesus, housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at Mombasa. After a two-year siege, the fort fell to Imam Saif bin Sultan in 1698. Saif bin Sultan occupied Bahrain in 1700.

Following the death of Imam Sultan bin Saif II, the Omani Empire was plunged into civil war in 1718 which weakened the dynasty as rival claimants competed for the imamate. With the power of the Yaruba Dynasty dwindling, Imam Saif eventually asked for help against his rivals from Nader Shah of Persia whose forces occupied parts of the country on two occasions between 1737 and 1744. The civil war ultimately ended with the election of Ahmad bin Said Al Busaidi as imam in 1744, marking the collapse of the Ya'aruba dynasty and the establishment of the Al Bu Said dynasty, which has ruled Oman ever since.

After the Omanis expelled the Persians, Ahmad bin Said became the elected Imam of Oman on 20 November 1744, with Rustaq serving as the capital. His dynasty, the Al Bu Said, continues to rule Oman into the year 2026. Since the revival of the Imamate, the Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that the person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling family.

Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin Ahmed, became the elected Imam. Said's son, Hamed bin Said, overthrew the governor of Muscat and soon obtained the possession of most of the fortresses in the region, giving himself the title of "Seyyid". Afterwards, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, the uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took over power. Sultan's son, Seyyid Said bin Sultan, succeeded him.

During the entire 19th century, in addition to Imam Said bin Ahmed, who retained the title until he died in 1803, Azzan bin Qais was the only elected Imam of Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler, as he was viewed as inimical to their interests. This view played an instrumental role in supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, Sayyid Turki, a son of the late Sayyid Said bin Sultan and brother of Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar, who Britain deemed to be more acceptable.

Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar, an area of modern-day Pakistan.

The British Empire was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to stifle the growing power of other European states and to curb the Omani maritime power that grew during the 17th century. The British empire over time, starting from the late 18th century, began to establish a series of treaties with the sultans with the objective of advancing British political and economic interest in Muscat, while granting the sultans military protection. In 1798, the first treaty between the British East India Company and the Albusaidi dynasty was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. The treaty aimed to block commercial competition of the French and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British factory at Bandar Abbas. A second treaty was signed in 1800, which stipulated that a British representative shall reside at the port of Muscat and manage all external affairs with other states. As the Omani Empire weakened, the British influence over Muscat grew throughout the nineteenth century.

In 1854, a deed of cession of the Omani Kuria Muria islands to Britain was signed by the sultan of Muscat and the British government. The British government achieved predominating control over Muscat, which, for the most part, impeded competition from other nations. Between 1862 and 1892, the Political Residents, Lewis Pelly and Edward Ross, played an instrumental role in securing British supremacy over the Persian Gulf and Muscat by a system of indirect governance. By the end of the 19th century, and with the loss of its African dominions and its revenues, British influence increased to the point that the sultans became heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all important matters. The Sultanate thus came de facto under the British sphere.

Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main slave market of the Swahili Coast as well as being a major producer of cloves, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the Sayyid Sa'id bin Sultan, to make it the capital of the empire in 1837. In 1856, under British arbitration, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different sultanates.

The Hajar Mountains, of which the Jebel Akhdar is a part, separate the country into two distinct regions: the interior, and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat. The British imperial development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to the renewed revival of the cause of the Imamate in the interior of Oman, which has appeared in cycles for more than 1,200 years in Oman. The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed the alienation of the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which he described as being completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and political conditions of the locals. In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that lasted until 1920 when the Sultanate established peace with the Imamate by signing the Treaty of Seeb. The treaty was brokered by Britain, which had no economic interest in the interior of Oman during that point of time. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of Oman and recognised the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the Sultanate of Muscat. In 1920, Imam Salim Alkharusi died and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected.

On 10 January 1923, an agreement between the Sultanate and the British government was signed in which the Sultanate had to consult with the British political agent residing in Muscat and obtain the approval of the High Government of India to extract oil in the Sultanate. On 31 July 1928, the Red Line Agreement was signed between Anglo-Persian Company (later renamed British Petroleum), Royal Dutch/Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later renamed Total), Near East Development Corporation (later renamed ExxonMobil) and Calouste Gulbenkian (an Armenian businessman) to collectively produce oil in the post-Ottoman Empire region, which included the Arabian peninsula, with each of the four major companies holding 23.75 percent of the shares while Calouste Gulbenkian held the remaining 5 percent shares. The agreement stipulated that none of the signatories was allowed to pursue the establishment of oil concessions within the agreed on area without including all other stakeholders. In 1929, the members of the agreement established Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC). On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal abdicated.