Eritrea

The name Eritrea is derived from the ancient (originally Greek) name for the Red Sea, the Erythraean Sea (Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα Erythra Thalassa, based on the adjective ἐρυθρός erythros "red"). It was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation of Italian Eritrea (Colonia Eritrea). The name persisted throughout subsequent British and Ethiopian occupation, and was reaffirmed by the 1993 independence referendum and 1997 constitution.

=== Prehistory ===

Madam Buya, a fossil found at an Eritrean archaeological site by Italian anthropologists, has been identified as among the oldest hominid fossils found to date. This fossil has been said to reveal significant stages in human evolution and to represent a possible link between the earlier Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens. Her remains have been dated to 1 million years old, making her the oldest skeletal find of her kind. It is believed that the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was a major site of human evolution and may contain other archaeological links between Homo erectus hominids and anatomically modern humans.

During the last interglacial period (roughly 130,000 to 115,000 years ago), the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans. It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World. In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team (which was composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch, and French scientists) discovered a Paleolithic site with stone and obsidian tools dated to more than 125,000 years old, near the Gulf of Zula, south of Massawa, along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources such as clams and oysters.

Tools found in the Barka Valley, dating from 8,000 BC, appear to offer the first concrete evidence of human settlement in the area. Research also shows that many of the ethnic groups of Eritrea were the first to inhabit these areas.

Excavations in and near Agordat, in central Eritrea, yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group. This included ceramics dated to between 2,500 and 1,500 BC.

Around 2,000 BC, parts of Eritrea were likely part of the Land of Punt, a kingdom first mentioned in the twenty-fifth century BC. It was known for producing and exporting gold, aromatic resins, blackwood, ebony, ivory, and wild animals. The region is known from ancient Egyptian records of trade expeditions, especially a well-documented expedition to Punt in approximately 1,469 BC, during the reestablishment of disrupted trade routes by Hatshepsut and shortly after the beginning of her rule as the pharaoh of ancient Egypt.

Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient, pre-Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara. This culture is believed to have been among the oldest pastoral and agricultural communities in East Africa. Artifacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.

Dʿmt was a kingdom that existed from the tenth to fifth centuries BC in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Evidence of a massive temple complex at Yeha suggests that it was most likely Dʿmt's capital. Qohaito, often identified as the town of Koloe in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and Matara were important Dʿmt cities located in southern Eritrea.

The realm developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After Dʿmt fell in the fifth century BC, the plateau was dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. This lasted until the first century, when one of these polities, the Kingdom of Aksum, was able to reunite the area.

The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum) was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the fourth century BC and achieving prominence by the first century AD.

According to the medieval Liber Axumae (Book of Aksum), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia. The kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century.

The Aksumites erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times. One of these granite columns, the Obelisk of Aksum, is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet (27 metres). Under Ezana (fl. 320–360), Aksum later adopted Christianity.

Christianity was the first world religion adopted in modern Eritrea. The oldest monastery, Debre Sina, dates back to the fourth century, Debre Libanos was built in the late fifth or early sixth century. Originally located in the village of Ham, it was moved to an inaccessible location on the edge of a cliff below the Ham plateau. Its church contains the Golden Gospel, a metal-covered bible dating to the thirteenth century, during which Debre Libanos was a seat of religious power.

In the seventh century AD, early Muslims from Mecca, at least companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, sought refuge from Qurayshi persecution by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic history as the First Hijrah. They reportedly built the first African mosque: the Mosque of the Companions in Massawa.

The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. At the time, Aksum was ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency.

Pre-colonial Eritrea had four distinct regions, divided by geography and in limited contact with each other. The Abyssinian, Tigrinya-speaking Christians controlled the highlands, the nomadic Tigre and Beni Amer clans the western lowlands, the Arabic Muslims the regions Massawa and Dahlak, and the pastoralist Afars the Dankalia region.

After the decline of Aksum, the Eritrean highlands fell under the domain of the Christian Zagwe dynasty, and later the control of the Ethiopian Empire. Its coastal territories were also under the Adal Sultanate during the reign of Sultan Badlay. The area was first known as Ma'ikele Bahri ("between the seas/rivers", i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river), and later renamed the Medri Bahri ("Sea land" in Tigrinya). The region, ruled by a local governor called the Bahr Negash, was first documented in an obscure land grant of the 11th-century Zagwe king Tatadim. He considered the unnamed Bahr Negash one of his seyyuman or "appointed ones". Ethiopian Emperor Zara Yaqob strengthened imperial presence in the area by increasing the power of the Bahr Negash and placing him above other local chiefs, establishing a military colony of settlers from Shewa, and forcing the Muslims on the coast to pay tribute.

The first Westerner to document a visit to Eritrea was Portuguese explorer Francisco Álvares in 1520. He recounted his journey through the principality ruled by the Bahr Negash, highlighting three key cities, with Debarwa as the capital. He then detailed the border demarcation at the Mereb River with the province of Tigray and recounted the difficulties in transporting certain goods across the border. His books have the first description of the local powers of Tigray and the Bahr Negash.

The contemporary coast of Eritrea formed a route to the region of Tigray, where the Portuguese had a small colony, and to the interior Ethiopian allies of the Portuguese. Massawa was also the stage for the 1541 landing of troops by Cristóvão da Gama in the military campaign that eventually defeated the Adal Sultanate in the battle of Wayna Daga in 1543.

By 1557, the Ottomans had succeeded in occupying all of northeastern present-day Eritrea for the following two decades, an area that stretched from Massawa to Swakin in Sudan. The territory became an Ottoman governorate, known as the Habesh Eyalet, with a capital at Massawa. When the city became of secondary economic importance, the administrative capital moved across the Red Sea to Jeddah.

The Turks tried to occupy the highlands of Eritrea in 1559, but withdrew after they encountered resistance, pushed back by the Bahri Negash and highland forces. In 1578 they tried to expand into the highlands with the help of Bahri Negash Yisehaq, who had switched alliances due to a power struggle. Ethiopian Emperor Sarsa Dengel made a punitive expedition against the Turks in 1588 in response to their raids in the northern provinces, and apparently, by 1589, they were once again compelled to withdraw to the coast. The Ottomans were eventually driven out in the last quarter of the sixteenth century. However, they retained control over the seaboard until the establishment of Italian Eritrea in the late 1800s.

In 1734, the Afar leader Kedafu established the Mudaito Dynasty in Ethiopia, which later also came to include the southern Denkel lowlands of Eritrea, thus incorporating the southern Denkel lowlands into the Sultanate of Aussa. The northern coastline of Denkel was dominated by a number of smaller Afar sultanates, such as the Sultanate of Rahayta, the Sultanate of Beylul and the Sultanate of Bidu.

The boundaries of present-day Eritrea were established during the Scramble for Africa. On 15 November 1869, the ruling local chief sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Italian missionary Giuseppe Sapeto, on behalf of the Rubattino Shipping Company. The area served as a coaling station along the shipping lanes introduced by the recently completed Suez Canal. In 1882, the Italian government formally took possession of the Assab colony from its commercial owners and expanded their control to include Massawa (and most of the Eritrean coastal lowlands) after the Egyptians withdrew from Eritrea in February 1885.

In the power vacuum that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV, Gen. Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of Italian Eritrea, a colony of the Kingdom of Italy. In the Treaty of Wuchale (It. Uccialli) signed the same year, Menelik II of Shewa, a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.

In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888, and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911. The Asmara–Massawa Cableway was the longest line in the world during its time but was later dismantled by the British in World War II. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. They also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments. Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the Italian army, serving during the Italo-Turkish War in Libya as well as the First and Second Italo-Abyssinian Wars.

Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened many new factories that produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide, and other household commodities. In 1939, there were approximately 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industry also increased the populations of Italians and Eritreans residing in cities. The number of Italians in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industry, trade and fruit plantations were expanded across the nation. Some plantations were owned by Eritreans.

In 1922, Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After il Duce declared the birth of the Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just-conquered Ethiopia into the new Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana). This Fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa.

After 1935, art deco architecture was widely employed in Asmara. The Italians designed more than 400 buildings in a construction boom that only halted with Italy's involvement in World War II. These included the Fiat Tagliero Building and Cinema Impero. In 2017, the city was declared a World Heritage Site, described by UNESCO as featuring eclectic and rationalist built forms, well-defined open spaces, and public and private buildings, including cinemas, shops, banks, religious structures, public and private offices, industrial facilities, and residences.)

Through the 1941 Battle of Keren, the British expelled the Italians and took over the administration of the country. The decade of British administration saw significant restructuring of the Eritrean economy. Until 1945, the British and Americans relied on Italian equipment and skilled labor for wartime needs and Allied support in the Middle East. This economic boom, fueled by substantial Italian involvement, lasted until the end of the war, when the Eritrean economy faced a combination of recession and depression. War factories that had employed thousands shut down, and Italians began to be repatriated. Additionally, many small manufacturing plants established between 1936 and 1945 were forced to close due to intense competition from factories in Europe and the Middle East.

The British placed Eritrea under British military administration until Allied forces could decide its fate. In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning Eritrea's status, the British administration continued until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious community lines and annexed partly to the British colony of Sudan and partly to Ethiopia. After the peace treaty with Italy was signed in 1947, the United Nations sent a Commission of Enquiry to decide the fate of the colony.

In the 1950s, the Ethiopian semi-feudal state under Emperor Haile Selassie sought to annex Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. Selassie laid claim to both territories in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Paris Peace Conference and the First Session of the United Nations. In the United Nations, the debate over the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians, as a reward for their support during World War II. The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested for the United Nations General Assembly to hold an immediate referendum to settle the question of Eritrean sovereignty.

The United Nations Commission of Enquiry arrived in Eritrea in early 1950, and after about six weeks, returned to New York to submit its report. Two reports were presented. The minority report, presented by Pakistan and Guatemala, proposed that Eritrea be independent after a period of trusteeship. The majority report, presented by Burma, Norway, and the Union of South Africa, called for Eritrea to be incorporated into Ethiopia.

Following the adoption of U.N. Resolution 390A(V) in December 1950, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia under the prompting of the United States. The resolution called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own new flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all practical purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence, but did guarantee the population democratic rights and a measure of autonomy.

In 1958, a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). The organization mainly consisted of Eritrean students, professionals, and intellectuals. It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state. On 1 September 1961, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), under the leadership of Hamid Idris Awate, waged an armed struggle for independence. In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the territory. The ensuing Eritrean War of Independence went on for 30 years against successive Ethiopian governments until 1991, when the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), a successor of the ELF, defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped a coalition of Ethiopian rebel forces take control of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa.

In the 1980s, a non-government organization called the Eritrea Inter-Agency Consortium (EIAC) aided in the development projects for the Eritrean Liberation movement.

Following a referendum in Eritrea supervised by the United Nations (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993. The EPLF seized power, established a one-party state along nationalist lines and banned further political activity. As of 2024, there have been no elections. On May 28, 1993, Eritrea was admitted into the United Nations as the 182nd member state.

Eritrea is located in East Africa. It is bordered to the northeast and east by the Red Sea, Sudan to the west, Ethiopia to the south, and Djibouti to the southeast. Eritrea lies between latitudes 12° and 18°N, and longitudes 36° and 44°E.

The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the East African Rift. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, holds the fork in the rift. The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy, arid coastline.

Eritrea is split into three ecoregions. Extending along the coast, a hot, arid plain is narrow in the west and widens towards the east. These coastal lowlands are part of the Djibouti xeric shrublands ecoregion. The cooler, more fertile highlands reach up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and are a northern extension of the Ethiopian Highlands, home to montane grasslands and woodlands. Habitats here vary, from the sub-tropical rainforest at Filfil Solomona to the precipitous cliffs and canyons of the southern highlands. Filfil receives over 1,100 mm of rainfall annually. There is a steep escarpment along the eastern side of the highlands, which is the western wall of the East African Rift. The western slope of the highlands is more gradual, descending to interior lowlands. Southwestern Eritrea is drained by the Atbara River, which flows northwestwards to join the Nile. The northwestern slope of the highlands is drained by the Barka River, which flows northwards into Sudan to empty into the Red Sea. Western Eritrea is part of the Sahelian Acacia savanna, which extends across Africa south of the Sahara from Eritrea to Senegal.

The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. The highest point of the country, Emba Soira, is located in the center of Eritrea, at 3,018 m (9,902 ft) above sea level. Eritrea has volcanic activity in the southeastern parts of the country. In 2011, Nabro Volcano erupted.

Eritrea's major urban areas include its capital city Asmara, the port town of Asseb in the southeast, the towns of Massawa to the east, the town of Keren to the north, and the central town Mendefera.

Local variability in rainfall patterns and reduced precipitation are known to occur, which may precipitate soil erosion, floods, droughts, land degradation, and desertification.

Eritrea is part of a 14-nation constituency within the Global Environment Facility, which partners with international institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.

In 2006, Eritrea announced that it would become the world's first country to make its entire coast an environmentally protected zone. The 1,347 km (837 mi) coastline, along with another 1,946 km (1,209 mi) of coast around its hundreds of islands, will come under governmental protection.

Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones: the temperate zone, subtropical climate zone, and tropical climate zone.

The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topographical features and its location within the tropics. The variation of landscape and topography across the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea creates a diversity of climate. The highlands have a temperate climate throughout the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semi-arid. Distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country. Eritrean climate also varies based on seasonal and altitudinal differences.

Due to its physical diversity, Eritrea is one of the few countries where one can experience "four seasons in a day". In the highlands (up to 3,000 m or 9,800 ft above sea level), the hottest month is usually May, with temperatures reaching 30 °C (86 °F), whereas winter occurs during December to February when temperatures can be as low as 10 °C (50 °F) at night. The capital, Asmara, is temperate year-round.

In the lowlands and the coastal areas, summer occurs from June to September, when temperatures can reach 40 °C (104 °F). Winter in the lowlands occurs from February to April, when temperatures are between 21 and 35 °C (70 and 95 °F).

A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Eritrea to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change are high.

Eritrea has a rich avifauna of 560 species of birds and is home to a large number of mammals; 126 species of mammals, 90 species of reptiles, and 19 species of amphibians have been recorded. Enforced regulations have helped in steadily increasing wildlife numbers throughout Eritrea. Mammals commonly seen today include the Abyssinian hare, African wild cat, Black-backed jackal, African golden wolf, genet, ground squirrel, pale fox, Soemmerring's gazelle, and warthog. Dorcas gazelles are common on the coastal plains and in Gash-Barka.

Lions are said to inhabit the mountains of the Gash-Barka region. Dik-diks may be found in many areas. The endangered African wild ass may be seen in the Denakalia Region. Other local wildlife include bushbuck, duikers, greater kudu, Klipspringer, African leopards, oryx, and crocodiles. The spotted hyena is widespread and fairly common.

Historically, a small population of African bush elephants roamed some parts of the country. Between 1955 and 2001, there were no reported sightings of elephant herds, however, and they were thought to have fallen victim to the War of Independence. In December 2001, a herd of approximately 30 elephants, including 10 juveniles, was observed near the Gash River. The elephants seemed to have formed a symbiotic relationship with olive baboons: the baboons use water holes dug by the elephants, and the elephants use baboon vocalizations from the tree tops as an early warning system. It is estimated that there are approximately 100 African bush elephants left in Eritrea.

The endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) was previously found in Eritrea but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country. In Gash-Barka, snakes such as the saw-scaled viper are common. Puff adders and red spitting cobras are widespread and may be found in the highlands. In coastal areas, common marine species include dolphins, dugongs, whale sharks, turtles, marlin, swordfish, and manta rays. 500 fish species, 5 marine turtles, and at least 8 cetaceans have been recorded in the country.

Eritrea also harbours many endemic species, including insects, amphibians, mammals, reptiles, and plants.

Over 700 plants have been recorded in Eritrea, including marine plants and seagrass. 26% of Eritrea is arable land. Eritrea has many diverse habitats, including tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, shrublands, xeric shrublands, deserts, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests and mangrove forests.

All of Eritrea's national parks are protected, which include Dahlak Marine National Park, Nakfa Wildlife Reserve, Gash-Setit Wildlife Refuge, Semenawi Bahri National Park, and Yob Wildlife Reserve.

The People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) is the only legal party in Eritrea. Other political groups are not allowed to organize, though the unimplemented Constitution of 1997 provides for the existence of multi-party politics. The National Assembly has 150 seats. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled; as of 2025, none have ever been held in the country. President Isaias Afwerki has been in office since independence in 1993.

In May 2001, a group of senior government officials and prominent members of the ruling party (PFDJ), known as the G-15, wrote an open letter to President Isaias Afwerki. This letter called the president to implement the ratified constitution, enact democratic reforms, and establish the rule of law. In September 2001, the Eritrean government arrested 11 of the signatories and subjected them to incommunicado detention. The crackdown also targeted independent media outlets and multiple independent journalists, including Dawit Isaac. To this day, they remain imprisoned without charge or trial.

In 1993, 75 representatives were elected to the National Assembly; the rest were appointed. As the report by the United Nations Human Rights Council explained: "No national elections have taken place since that time, and no presidential elections have ever taken place. Local or regional elections have not been held since 2003–2004. The National Assembly elected independent Eritrea's first president, Isaias Afwerki, in 1993. Following his election, Afwerki consolidated his control of the Eritrean government." President Isaias Afwerki has regularly expressed his disdain for what he refers to as "Western-style" democracy. In a 2008 interview with Al Jazeera, for example, the president stated that "Eritrea will wait three or four decades, maybe more, before it holds elections. Who knows?" According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices, Eritrea is 2nd lowest ranked worldwide and the lowest ranked electoral democracy in Africa.

Given that the full implementation of the Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship between Eritrea and Ethiopia is still incomplete, the Eritrean authorities still do not consider that the peace agreement is formally implemented. However, local elections were held for a time in Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were in 2010 and 2011.

Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions. These areas are further divided into 58 districts.

The regions of Eritrea are the primary geographical divisions through which the country is administered. At the time of independence in 1993, Eritrea was arranged into ten provinces. These provinces were similar to the nine provinces during the colonial period. In 1996, these were consolidated into six regions (zobas). The boundaries of these new regions are based on water catchment basins.