Gabon

The country's name derives from the Portuguese word "gabao" (also spelled "Gabão"), meaning "hooded cloak". Portuguese navigators in the 1470s applied the term to the Komo River estuary, whose outline they thought resembled a cloak; the usage later extended to the surrounding region and eventually the modern state.

=== Pre-colonisation ===

The prehistoric inhabitants of Gabon were rainforest hunter-gatherer peoples collectively known as the Bambenga. In the 13th century BCE, Bantu migrants began settling in the area and formed early agricultural communities. With the development of ironworking in the 7th century CE, Bantu tribes grew dominant in the region, largely absorbing and replacing the Bambenga. By the 14th century, the Vili Kingdom of Loango had extended its control northward along the Gabonese coastline.

Between the late 16th and 18th centuries, European merchants frequented the coast for the ivory and slave trades mediated by local brokers. Coastal communities exchanged such commodities and captives from the interior for sea salt, cloth, mirrors, cooking vessels, and weapons (including guns and iron machetes). The importation of a large supply of cheap ironware from abroad displaced the livelihoods of native blacksmiths. Mayumba emerged as a key slaving port in southern Gabon. In the 18th century, a Myènè-speaking thalassocracy known as the Kingdom of Orungu formed amid the rise of an elite of wealthy brokers enriched by international commerce. The kingdom was a maritime trading centre on the Cape Lopez Peninsula that profited from goods such as ivory, copal, ebony, beeswax, and dyewood, but increasingly became dependent on the trade in enslaved people. With the demise of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1870s, the kingdom fell under French control.

Explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza led his first mission to the Gabon-Congo area in 1875. He founded Franceville and became the colonial governor. Some Bantu groups lived in the area when France officially occupied it in 1885. In 1887, the slave warehouses at Cape Lopez and Mayumba were formally closed by French officers.

In 1910, Gabon became a territory of French Equatorial Africa, a federation that survived until 1958. The colonial regime imposed a two-tier social code, placing the vast majority of the population under the indigénat, which assigned them an inferior legal status, levied heavy taxation, and mandated the corvée (forced labour). Because cash was scarce for most of the colonial era, farmers were forced to pay taxes in ivory, palm oil, and rubber.

During World War II, the state conscripted half of the adult male population for road construction and on plantations managed by the government-sponsored Sociétés Indigènes de Prévoyance. The punishment for refusing the corvée was imprisonment. In 1940, the Allies invaded Gabon to overthrow the pro-Vichy France colonial administration. On 28 November 1958 Gabon became an autonomous republic within the French Community, and on 17 August 1960 it became fully independent.

The first president of Gabon, elected in 1961, was Léon M'ba, with Omar Bongo Ondimba as his vice president. After M'ba acceded to power, the press was suppressed, political demonstrations suppressed, freedom of expression curtailed, other political parties gradually excluded from power, and the constitution changed along French lines to vest power in the presidency. When M'ba dissolved the National Assembly in 1964 to institute one-party rule, an army coup sought to oust him from power and restore parliamentary democracy. French paratroopers flew in within 24 hours to restore M'ba to power. After days of fighting, the coup ended, and the opposition was imprisoned, with protests and riots ensuing.

When M'ba died in 1967, Bongo replaced him as president. In 1968, Bongo declared Gabon a one-party state by dissolving Gabonese Democratic Bloc that had been established by M'ba and establishing the Parti Démocratique Gabonais (PDG). He invited all Gabonese to participate, regardless of previous political affiliation. Bongo sought to forge a single national movement in support of the government's development policies, using PDG as a tool to suppress the regional and tribal rivalries that had divided Gabonese politics in the past. When Bongo was elected president in 1975, he abolished the position of vice president and replaced it with prime minister, who had no right to automatic succession. Bongo was re-elected president to two 7-year terms in 1979 and 1986.

In 1990, economic discontent and a desire for political liberalization provoked demonstrations and strikes by students and workers. In response to grievances by workers, Bongo negotiated with them on a sector-by-sector basis, making wage concessions. He promised to open up PDG and organize a national political conference to discuss Gabon's future political system. PDG and 74 political organizations attended the conference. Participants were essentially divided into 2 "loose" coalitions: the ruling PDG and its allies, and the United Front of Opposition Associations and Parties, consisting of the breakaway Morena Fundamental and the Gabonese Progress Party.

The conference approved political reforms, including the creation of a national Senate, decentralization of the budgetary process, freedom of assembly and press, and cancellation of an exit visa requirement. In an attempt to guide the political system's transformation to multiparty democracy, Bongo resigned as PDG chairman and created a transitional government headed by Prime Minister Casimir Oyé-Mba. The Gabonese Social Democratic Grouping (RSDG), as the resulting government was called, was smaller than the previous government and included representatives from some opposition parties in its cabinet. RSDG drafted a provisional constitution that provided a basic bill of rights and an independent judiciary and retained "strong" executive powers for the president. After further review by a constitutional committee and the National Assembly, this document came into force in March 1991.

Opposition to PDG continued after the conference, and in September 1990 two coup d'état attempts were uncovered and aborted. With demonstrations after the death of an opposition leader, the first multiparty National Assembly elections in almost 30 years took place, with PDG garnering a majority. In 1991, the Parliament of Gabon adopted a new constitution, and the country switched to multiparty elections.

Following Bongo's re-election in 1993 with 51% of the vote, opposition candidates refused to validate the election results. Civil disturbances and violent repression led to an agreement between the government and opposition factions to work toward a political settlement. These talks led to the Paris Accords in November 1994, under which some opposition figures were included in a government of national unity. This arrangement broke down, and the 1996 and 1997 legislative and municipal elections provided the background for renewed partisan politics. PDG won in the legislative election, and some cities, including Libreville, elected opposition mayors during the 1997 local election.

Facing a divided opposition, Bongo coasted to re-election in 1998. While some of Bongo's opponents rejected the outcome as fraudulent, some international observers characterized the results as representative, "despite many perceived irregularities". Legislative elections held in 2001–02 were boycotted by several smaller opposition parties and were criticized for their administrative weaknesses, producing a National Assembly dominated by PDG and allied independents. In 2005 Bongo was elected for his sixth term. Opponents claimed that the balloting process was marred by irregularities. There were some instances of violence following the announcement of his win. In the 2006 National Assembly elections, some seats contested because of voting irregularities were overturned by the Constitutional Court, and the subsequent run-off elections in 2007 yielded a PDG-controlled National Assembly.

Following the death of Bongo on 8 June 2009 due to cardiac arrest, Gabon entered a period of political transition. Per the amended constitution, Rose Francine Rogombé, president of the Senate, assumed the role of interim president. The subsequent 2009 presidential elections marked a historic moment as they were the first in Gabon's history not to feature Bongo as a candidate. With a crowded field of 18 contenders, including Bongo's son and ruling party leader, Ali Bongo, the elections were closely watched both domestically and internationally.

After a rigorous three-week review by the Constitutional Court, Ali Bongo was officially declared the winner. However, the announcement of his victory was met with scepticism by some opposition candidates, sparking sporadic protests across the country. Discontent was more pronounced in Port-Gentil, where allegations of electoral fraud resulted in violent demonstrations. The unrest claimed four lives and led to significant property damage, including attacks on the French Consulate and a local prison. Subsequently, security forces were deployed, and a curfew remained in effect for over three months. In June 2010, a partial legislative by-election was held, marking the emergence of the Union Nationale (UN) coalition, primarily comprising defectors from the ruling PDG party following Omar Bongo's death. The contest for the five available seats saw both the PDG and UN claiming victory, underscoring the political tensions that persisted in the aftermath of the presidential transition.

In January 2019 a group of soldiers launched an unsuccessful coup against Bongo while he was in Morocco recovering from a stroke. In June 2021, Gabon became the first African country to receive payments for reducing deforestation and associated emissions. In June 2022, Gabon joined the Commonwealth of Nations.

In August 2023, following the announcement that Ali Bongo had won a third term in the general election, military officers announced that they had taken power in a coup d'état and cancelled the election results. They also dissolved state institutions, including the Judiciary, Parliament and the Constitutional Assembly. On 31 August army officers who seized power, ending the Bongo family's 55-year hold on power, named General Brice Oligui Nguema as transitional leader, and Nguema was sworn in as interim president.

As a consequence of the coup, Gabon was partially suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations. The partial suspension excluded Gabon from the Councils of the Commonwealth, and the organization's meetings and events, such as the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. This was done as a potential preamble to a full suspension from the Commonwealth, if "acceptable progress is not made within two years". Gabon was restored to a position of full membership within the Commonwealth in July 2025, with the organization stating that the Presidential election held on 12 April 2025 "largely reflected the will of the people who voted and that it was conducted in a credible, transparent and inclusive manner". In November 2024, a referendum on a new constitution was approved, reforming the country's government. Nguema won the 2025 presidential election with more than 90% of the vote, becoming the 4th president of Gabon.

The presidential republic form of government is stated under the 1961 constitution (revised in 1975, rewritten in 1991, and revised in 2003). The president is elected by universal suffrage for a seven-year term; a 2003 constitutional amendment removed presidential term limits. The president can appoint and dismiss the prime minister, the cabinet, and judges of the independent Supreme Court. The president has other powers, such as the authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, and conduct referendums. The parliament of Gabon is bicameral with a National Assembly and Senate. The National Assembly has 120 deputies who are popularly elected for a five-year term. The Senate is composed of 102 members who are elected by municipal councils and regional assemblies and serve for six years. The president of the Senate is next in succession to the president.

In 1990, the government made changes to Gabon's political system. A transitional constitution was drafted in May 1990 as an outgrowth of the national political conference in March–April and later revised by a constitutional committee. Among its provisions were a Western-style bill of rights, the creation of a National Council of Democracy to oversee the guarantee of those rights, a governmental advisory board on economic and social issues, and an independent judiciary. After approval by the National Assembly, the PDG Central Committee, and the president, the Assembly unanimously adopted the constitution in March 1991. Multiparty legislative elections were held in 1990–1991 when opposition parties had not been declared formally legal. In January 1991, the Assembly passed by unanimous vote a law governing the legalization of opposition parties.

After President Omar Bongo was re-elected in 1993, in a disputed election where only 51% of votes were cast, social and political disturbances led to the 1994 Paris Conference and Accords. These provided a framework for the next elections. Local and legislative elections were delayed until 1996–1997. In 1997, constitutional amendments put forward years earlier were adopted to create the Senate and the position of vice president and to extend the president's term to seven years.

In 2009, President Ali Bongo began efforts to streamline the government. To reduce corruption and government bloat, he eliminated 17 minister-level positions, abolished the vice presidency and reorganized the portfolios of some ministries, bureaus and directorates. Bongo announced a vision for the modernization of Gabon, called "Gabon Emergent". This program contains three pillars: Green Gabon, Service Gabon, and Industrial Gabon. The goals of Gabon Emergent are to diversify the economy so that Gabon becomes less reliant on petroleum, to eliminate corruption, and to modernize the workforce. Under this program, exports of raw timber were banned, a government-wide census was held, the work day was changed to eliminate a long midday break, and a national oil company was created.

On 25 January 2011, André Mba Obame declared himself president. He selected 19 ministers for his government and took refuge in a United Nations office in Libreville. In response, the government dissolved Obame's Gabonese Union for Democracy and Development party. African Union chairman Jean Ping said Obame's action "hurts the integrity of legitimate institutions and also endangers the peace, the security and the stability of Gabon." Interior Minister Jean-François Ndongou accused Obame and his supporters of treason. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said that he recognized Obame as the only official Gabonese president.

The 2016 presidential election was disputed, with "very close" official results reported between Ping and incumbent Bongo. Protests broke out in the capital and met repression, which culminated in the bombing of the opposition party headquarters, allegedly by the presidential guard. Between 50 and 100 citizens were killed by security forces, and 1,000 were arrested. International observers criticized irregularities, including unnaturally high turnout reported for some districts. The Supreme Court threw out some suspect precincts, and the ballots were destroyed. The election was declared in favour of Bongo. The European Parliament issued two resolutions denouncing the unclear results of the election and calling for an investigation into the human rights violations.

A few days after the controversial 2023 presidential election, a group of military officials declared a military coup and that they had overthrown the government and deposed Bongo. The announcement came hours after Bongo was officially re-elected for a third term. General Brice Oligui Nguema was appointed as the transitional leader. This event marked the eighth instance of military intervention in the region since 2020, raising concerns about democratic stability.

Since independence, Gabon has followed a nonaligned policy, advocating dialogue in international affairs and recognizing each side of divided countries. In intra-African affairs, it espouses development by evolution rather than revolution and favours regulated private enterprise as the system most likely to promote rapid economic growth. It involved itself in mediation efforts in Chad, the Central African Republic, Angola, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Burundi. In December 1999, through the mediation efforts of President Bongo, a peace accord was signed in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) between the government and most leaders of an armed rebellion. Bongo was involved in the continuing DRC peace process and played a role in mediating a crisis in Ivory Coast.

Gabon is a member of the United Nations and some of its specialized and related agencies, and of the World Bank; the IMF; the African Union (AU); the Central African Customs Union/Central African Economic and Monetary Community (UDEAC/CEMAC); EU/ACP association under the Lomé Convention; the Communauté Financière Africaine (CFA); the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC); the Nonaligned Movement; and the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS/CEEAC). In 1995, Gabon withdrew from the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), rejoining in 2016. In 2022, Gabon joined the Commonwealth of Nations. In 2024 Nguema assured American and French leaders that Gabon would be an ally of the West moving forward, as a part of his broader plan to solve the ongoing debt crisis. In 2023, Gabon was suspended from the African Union following the coup d'état and was re-instated following Nguema's election.

The Armed Forces of Gabon has a professional military of about 5,000 personnel, divided into army, navy, air force, gendarmerie, and police force. A 1,800-member guard provides security for the president.

Gabon is divided into 9 provinces, which are subdivided into 50 departments. The president appoints the provincial governors, the prefects, and the subprefects.

The provinces are (capitals in parentheses):

Estuaire (Libreville)

Haut-Ogooué (Franceville)

Moyen-Ogooué (Lambaréné)

Ngounié (Mouila)

Nyanga (Tchibanga)

Ogooué-Ivindo (Makokou)

Ogooué-Lolo (Koulamoutou)

Ogooué-Maritime (Port-Gentil)

Woleu-Ntem (Oyem)

Gabon is located on the Atlantic coast of Central Africa on the equator, between latitudes 3°N and 4°S, and longitudes 8° and 15°E. Gabon has an equatorial climate with a system of rainforests, with 89.3% of its land area forested.

There are coastal plains (ranging between 20 and 300 km [10 and 190 mi] from the ocean's shore), the mountains (the Crystal Mountains to the northeast of Libreville, the Chaillu Massif in the centre), and the savanna in the east. The coastal plains form a section of the World Wildlife Fund's Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion and contain patches of Central African mangroves including on the Muni River estuary on the border with Equatorial Guinea.

Geologically, Gabon is primarily Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic igneous and metamorphic basement rock, belonging to the stable continental crust of the Congo Craton. Some formations are more than 2 billion years old. Some rock units are overlain by marine carbonate, lacustrine and continental sedimentary rocks, and unconsolidated sediments and soils that formed in the last 2.5 million years of the Quaternary. The rifting apart of Pangaea created rift basins that filled with sediments and formed the hydrocarbons. There are Oklo reactor zones, a natural nuclear fission reactor which was active 2 billion years ago. The site was discovered during uranium mining in the 1970s to supply the French nuclear power industry.

Its largest river is the Ogooué, which is 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) long. It has three karst areas where there are hundreds of caves located in the dolomite and limestone rocks. A National Geographic expedition visited some caves in the summer of 2008 to document them.

Gabon is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its dense coastal population, economic hubs along the shore, and dependence on rainfed agriculture. Rising sea levels threaten to erode the coastline and contaminate freshwater sources with saltwater. The country is experiencing more frequent and severe extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, and storms, which damage infrastructure, displace communities, and disrupt food security and livelihoods. To adapt, Gabon prioritises protecting its coastal areas, as well as its fishing, agriculture, and forestry industries. Its vast forests act as a net carbon sink. It is recognized as a global leader in climate action and is widely considered the most carbon-positive country in the world, due to its strong conservation efforts.

In 2002 roughly 10% of the nation's territory was designated national park land, (with 13 parks in total). The National Agency for National Parks manages the park system. Gabon had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.07/10, ranking it 9th globally out of 172 countries.

Gabon has a large number of protected animal and plant species. The country's biodiversity is one of the most varied on the planet. Gabon is home of 604 species of birds, 98 species of amphibians, between 95 and 160 species of reptiles, and 198 different species of mammals. Rare species include the giant pangolin and the grey-necked rockfowl. The country is one of the most varied and important fauna reserves in Africa: it is an important refuge for chimpanzees (whose number, in 2003, was estimated between 27,000 and 64,000) and gorillas (28,000-42,000 estimated in 1983). The "Gorilla and Chimpanzee Study Station" inside the Lopé National Park is dedicated to their study. The nation is home to more than half the population of African forest elephants, many of them living in Minkébé National Park. From 2004 to 2014, the population in the park declined by 78-81%, a loss of more than 25,000 elephants, primarily due to poaching. Gabon's national symbol is the black panther.

More than 6,000 species of plants and 400 species of trees form the flora of Gabon. Gabon is densely forested, with more than 85% of the country covered by forest, much of it largely undisturbed. The deforestation rate in Gabon is low, although some forests face localized pressures due to urbanization.

Gabon's economy is heavily dependent on oil and other natural resources, leaving it exposed to global market shifts and climate-related risks. Oil revenue constitutes roughly 46% of the government's budget, 43% of the gross domestic product (GDP), and 81% of exports. The rich Grondin Oil Field was discovered in 1971 in 50 m (160 ft) water depths 40 km (25 mi) offshore in an anticline salt structural trap in Batanga sandstones of Maastrichtian age, but about 60% of its estimated reserves had been extracted by 1978. As of 2023, Gabon produces about 200,000 barrels per day of crude oil.

"Overspending" on the Trans-Gabon Railway, the CFA franc devaluation of 1994, and periods of lower oil prices caused debt problems. At the insistence of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF), the government embarked in the 1990s on a program of privatization of its state-owned companies and administrative reform, including reducing public sector employment and salary growth. The government has voiced a commitment to work toward an economic transformation of the country. Successive IMF missions have criticized the Gabonese government for overspending on off-budget items (in good years and bad), over-borrowing from the central bank, and slipping on the schedule for privatization and administrative reform. In 2005, Gabon successfully concluded a 15-month Stand-By Arrangement with the IMF. A three-year Stand-By Arrangement with the IMF was approved in 2007. Due to the 2008 financial crisis and social developments surrounding the death of President Omar Bongo and the elections, Gabon was unable to meet its economic goals under the Stand-By Arrangement in 2009.

Gabon's oil revenues have given it a per capita GDP of $8,600. A "skewed income distribution" and "poor social indicators" are "evident". The richest 20% of the population earn over 90% of the income while about a third of the population lives in poverty.

The economy is dependent on extraction. Before the discovery of oil, logging was the pillar of the economy. Then, logging and manganese mining are the "next-most-important" income generators. Some explorations suggest the presence of the world's largest unexploited iron ore deposit. For some who live in rural areas without access to employment opportunities in extractive industries, remittances from family members in urban areas or subsistence activities provide income.

Foreign and local observers have lamented the lack of diversity in the economy. Factors that have limited the development of new industries include:

The market is "small", about a million

dependent on imports from France

unable to capitalize on regional markets

Entrepreneurial zeal is not always present among the Gabonese

a "fairly regular" stream of oil "rent", even if it is diminishing

Further investment in the agricultural or tourism sectors is "complicated by poor infrastructure". Some processing and service sectors are "largely dominated by a few prominent local investors".