Guyana

The name "Guyana" is derived from the Guianas, an earlier name for a larger region that included the areas now called Guyana (British Guyana), Suriname (Dutch Guiana), French Guiana, the Guayana Region in Venezuela (Spanish Guiana), and Amapá in Brazil (Portuguese Guiana). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the name "Guyana" comes from an Indigenous Amerindian language and means "land of many waters".

=== Before colonisation ===

What is now Guyana has been inhabited for millennia. Nine Indigenous tribes reside in Guyana: the Wai Wai, Macushi, Patamona, Lokono, Kalina, Wapishana, Pemon, Akawaio, and Warao. Many of these peoples practised shifting agriculture alongside hunting. Historians speculate that the Lokono and Kalina originated in the South American hinterland and migrated northward, first to the present-day Guianas and then to the Caribbean islands. The Lokono, mainly cultivators, hunters, and fishermen, migrated to the Caribbean islands before the Kalina and settled throughout the region.

Although Christopher Columbus was the first European to sight Guyana during his third voyage (in 1498), and Sir Walter Raleigh wrote an account in 1596, the Dutch were the first Europeans to establish colonies: Pomeroon (1581), Essequibo (1616), Berbice (1627), and Demerara (1752). After France invaded the Dutch Republic (1795), the British assumed control in 1796, with the Dutch and British signing the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 in London that ceded Demerara-Essequibo and Berbice to Britain.

In 1831, the united colonies of Demerara-Essequibo and separate colony of Berbice together became a single British colony known as British Guiana.

Since its independence in 1824, Venezuela has claimed the area of land to the west of the Essequibo River. Simón Bolívar wrote to the British government warning against the Berbice and Demerara settlers settling on land which the Venezuelans, as assumed heirs of Spanish claims on the area dating to the 16th century, claimed was theirs. In 1899, an international tribunal ruled that the land belonged to Great Britain. From the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, the British inherited Dutch territory which included lands between the Orinoco and Courantyne rivers. Dutch sovereignty over these settlements was recognised in 1648 by Spain with the Peace of Münster, which stated under Article 5 that the Dutch would retain all of the "lordships, cities, castles, fortresses, trades and lands in the... West Indies" under their possession at the time. However, the treaty did not specify the boundary between Spanish Guiana and Dutch Guiana.

Guyana achieved independence from the United Kingdom as a dominion on 26 May 1966 and became a republic on 23 February 1970, remaining a member of the Commonwealth. Shortly after independence, Venezuela began to take diplomatic, economic, and military action against Guyana to enforce its territorial claim to the Essequibo region. Five months after Guyana's independence, in October 1966, Venezuelan troops crossed the international border and seized Ankoko Island which has been under occupation ever since. Venezuelan troops quickly made military installations and an airstrip.

Following independence, Forbes Burnham of the People's National Congress rose to power, quickly becoming a repressive authoritarian leader. Politics became divided on race with the Afro-Guyanese supporting Burnham's People's National Congress and the Indo-Guyanese supporting Cheddi Jagan's People's Progressive Party, in what became known as aapan jaat politics, loosely translated from Guyanese Hindustani as "for your own kind".

In 1978, a total of 918 people died at the Jonestown mass murder-suicide led by American cult leader Jim Jones at a remote settlement in northwest Guyana.

Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter visited Guyana to lobby for the resumption of free elections. On 5 October 1992, a new National Assembly and regional councils were elected in the first Guyanese election since 1964 to be internationally recognised as free and fair. Cheddi Jagan of the PPP was elected and sworn in as president on 9 October 1992. This reversed the monopoly that Afro-Guyanese traditionally had over Guyanese politics. The poll was marred by violence however.

In May 2008, President Bharrat Jagdeo was a signatory to the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations. The Guyanese government officially ratified the treaty in 2010.

In 2015, major oil reserves were discovered off the coast by ExxonMobil.

In March 2020, President David A. Granger narrowly lost the snap elections, following Granger's government loss of a vote of no confidence back in 2018. Granger refused to accept the results, but eventually five months later, Irfaan Ali of the People's Progressive Party/Civic was sworn in as the new president because of allegations of fraud and irregularities.

The National Trust of Guyana has designated nine historic sites as national monuments.

A referendum in neighbouring Venezuela was held in December 2023 on the annexation of the Essequibo region, which is disputed with Guyana and has been under Guyanese control since its founding. The vote passed with a 95% majority, but with a low turnout, with analysts stating Maduro's government had falsified the results. This came at the same time as a Venezuelan military buildup on the Guyanese border, sparking concerns of war between the two states.

In September 2025, Irfaan Ali was re-elected for a second term as Guyana’s president.

The territory controlled by Guyana lies between latitudes 1° and 9°N, and longitudes 56° and 62°W; it is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries.

The country can be divided into five natural regions: a narrow and fertile marshy plain along the Atlantic coast (low coastal plain) where most of the population lives; a white sand belt further inland (hilly sand and clay region), containing most of Guyana's mineral deposits; the dense rain forests (Forested Highland Region) in the southern part of the country; the drier savannah areas in the south-west; and the smallest interior lowlands (interior savannah) consisting mostly of mountains that gradually rise to the Brazilian border.

Some of Guyana's highest mountains are Mount Ayanganna (2,042 m or 6,699 ft), Monte Caburaí (1,465 m or 4,806 ft) and Mount Roraima (2,772 m or 9,094 ft – the highest mountain in Guyana) on the Brazil-Guyana-Venezuela tripoint border, part of the Pakaraima range. Mount Roraima and Guyana's table-top mountains (tepuis) are said to have been the inspiration for Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's 1912 novel The Lost World. There are also many volcanic escarpments and waterfalls, including Kaieteur Falls which is one of the world's most powerful waterfalls. North of the Rupununi River lies the Rupununi savannah, south of which lie the Kanuku Mountains.

The four longest rivers are the Essequibo at 1,010 km (628 mi) long, the Courentyne River at 724 km (450 mi), the Berbice at 595 km (370 mi), and the Demerara at 346 km (215 mi). The Courentyne river forms the border with Suriname. At the mouth of the Essequibo are several large islands, including the 145 km (90 mi) wide Shell Beach along the northwest coast, which is also a major breeding area for sea turtles (mainly leatherbacks) and other wildlife.

The climate is tropical and generally hot and humid, though moderated by northeast trade winds along the coast. There are two rainy seasons, the first from May to mid-August, the second from mid-November to mid-January.

Guyana has one of the largest unspoiled rainforests in South America, some parts of which are almost inaccessible to humans. The rich natural history of Guyana was described by early explorers Sir Walter Raleigh and Charles Waterton and later by naturalists Sir David Attenborough and Gerald Durrell. In 2008, the BBC broadcast a three-part programme called Lost Land of the Jaguar which highlighted the huge diversity of wildlife, including undiscovered species and rare species such as the giant otter and harpy eagle.

Guyana is located on the Guiana Shield, an extremely biodiverse region; Guyana itself has one of the highest levels of biodiversity in the world. It is home to more than 225 species of mammals, 900 species of birds, 880 species of reptiles, and more than 6,500 species of plants. Among these, the most famous are the arapaima, which is the world's largest scaled freshwater fish; the giant anteater, the largest anteater; the giant otter, the world's largest and rarest river otter; and the Guianan cock-of-the-rock bird (Rupicola rupicola). The hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin), also known as the Canje pheasant, is the national bird of Guayana and is featured on the country's coat of arms. While superficially resembling a pheasant, the hoatzin is in fact the only remaining species in its taxonomic family. The following habitats are present in Guyana: coastal, marine, littoral, estuarine, palustrine, mangrove, riverine, lacustrine, swamp, savanna, white sand forest, brown sand forest, montane, cloud forest, moist lowland, and dry evergreen scrub forests. In 1999, 14 areas were identified as potential hotspots for a National Protected Area System due to their biodiversity.

The country is home to six ecoregions: Guayanan Highlands moist forests, Guianan moist forests, Orinoco Delta swamp forests, Tepuis, Guianan savanna, and Guianan mangroves. Unlike other areas of South America, over 70% of the natural habitat of the Guiana Shield region remains pristine.

Southern Guyana is host to some of the most pristine expanses of evergreen forests in the northern part of South America. Most of the forests found are tall, evergreen hill-land and lower montane forests, with large expanses of flooded forest along major rivers. Thanks to the very low human population density of the area, most of these forests are still intact. More than 80% of Guyana is covered by forests; the country itself has over 1,000 species of trees and 8,000 species of plants, 4,000 of which are only found in Guyana.

The Smithsonian Institution has identified nearly 2,700 species of plants from this region, representing 239 families, and there are certainly additional species still to be recorded. The diversity of plants supports diverse animal life, recently documented by a biological survey organised by Conservation International. The reportedly clean, unpolluted waters of the Essequibo watershed support a remarkable diversity of fish and aquatic invertebrates, and are home to giant otters, capybaras, and several species of caimans.

On land, large mammals, such as jaguars, tapirs, bush dogs, giant anteaters, and saki monkeys are still common. Over 800 species of birds have been reported from the region, and the reptile and amphibian faunas are similarly rich.

In February 2004, the Government of Guyana issued a title to more than 4,000 km2 (1×10^6 acres) of land in the Konashen Indigenous District as the Kanashen Community-Owned Conservation Area, managed by the Wai Wai, and the world's largest community-owned conservation area. The Iwokrama International Centre for Rain Forest Conservation and Development was also created for the protection and sustainable use of the Iwokrama forest area. Since 2009, Guyana and Norway have collaborated to promote green development in Guyana and aim to reduce deforestation. However the rate of net forest area loss more than doubled, from 3 790 ha per year in 1990–2000 to 8 420 ha per year in 2015–2025.

Conservation International has worked in Guyana since 1989 through its country programme Conservation International Guyana (CI-Guyana), with offices in Georgetown and Lethem. Its work in the country has included support for protected-area planning, forest monitoring linked to Guyana’s REDD+ programme, mercury-reduction projects in gold mining, and mangrove mapping.

=== Politics ===

The politics of Guyana takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, in which the president of Guyana is both head of state and head of government in a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and the government. Legislative power is vested in both the president and the National Assembly of Guyana. Historically, politics is a source of tension in the country, and violent riots have often broken out during elections.

During the 1970s and 1980s, the political landscape was dominated by the People's National Congress.

In 1992, the first constitutional elections were overseen by former United States president Jimmy Carter, and the People's Progressive Party led the country until 2015. The two parties are principally organised along ethnic lines, and as a result, they often clash on issues related to the allocation of resources. In the general election held on 28 November 2011, the People's Progressive Party (PPP) retained a majority, and their presidential candidate Donald Ramotar was elected as president.

On 11 May 2015, early general elections were held. A coalition of the Partnership for National Unity and Alliance for Change (APNU-AFC) parties won 33 of the 65 seats in the National Assembly. On 16 May 2015, retired army general David A. Granger became the eighth president of Guyana. However, on 21 December 2018, a vote of confidence was called for, regarding terms under which the government granted a franchise for offshore oil exploration. Legislator Charrandass Persaud defected from the coalition, and the vote failed, requiring new elections. The governing coalition litigated this result for the entire 90 days allowed for new elections. New elections were held on 2 March 2020, and results were declared on 3 August 2020, with the People's Progressive Party/Civic as the winner. Mohamed Irfaan Ali became the ninth president of Guyana.

Public procurement in Guyana is overseen by the Public Procurement Commission, appointed under the Public Procurement Commission Act 2003. Due to lengthy delay in identifying and agreeing commission members, the commission was not appointed until 2016.

==== Regions and Neighbourhood Councils ====

Guyana is divided into 10 regions:

The regions are divided into 27 neighbourhood councils.

Guyana is divided into four natural regions. These are:

Low coastal plain

Hilly sand and clay

Highland region

Interior savannahs

There is a conflict between Guyana and Venezuela concerning the Essequibo region: the Guyana–Venezuela territorial dispute. After years of fruitless mediation, Guyana went to the International Court of Justice in 2018, asking judges to rule that the 1899 border decision by an international panel of arbiters is valid and binding. Venezuela argues that a 1966 agreement to resolve the dispute effectively nullified the original arbitration. The ICJ has ruled that the case is admissible and has jurisdiction, but it is expected to take years to reach a final decision. On Sunday, 3 December 2023, Venezuela's president, Nicolas Maduro, convoked a referendum to ask Venezuelan electors five questions, including whether to create a Venezuelan state in Essequibo and whether voters support granting Venezuelan citizenship to the region's current and future residents. Venezuela does not recognise the United Nations panel's jurisdiction over the decades-old dispute, but Vice President Delcy Rodríguez nonetheless characterised the ruling as a "victory for Venezuela," given that the UN did not halt the referendum plans.

==== Boundary disputes ====

Guyana is in border disputes with both Suriname, which claims the area east of the left bank of the Corentyne River and the New River in southwestern Suriname, and Venezuela which claims the land west of the Essequibo River, once the Dutch colony of Essequibo as part of what they call "Guayana Essequiba". The maritime component of the territorial dispute with Suriname was arbitrated by the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea, and a ruling was announced on 21 September 2007. The ruling concerning the Caribbean Sea north of both nations found both parties violated treaty obligations and declined to order any compensation to either party.

When the British surveyed British Guiana in 1840, they included the entire Cuyuni River basin within the colony, to the protest of Venezuela which claimed all lands west of the Essequibo River. In 1897 in Washington, DC, both countries accepted the "Treaty between Great Britain and the United States of Venezuela Respecting the Settlement of the Boundary between the Colony of British Guiana and the United States of Venezuela." According to the Treaty of Washington (1897), the final decision by the arbitration tribunal in Paris would be a "full, perfect, and final settlement" to the border dispute. In 1899, the tribunal issued the Paris Arbitral Award, granting a majority of the disputed territory to British Guiana. Following the settlement, an exact border was demarcated by markers and coordinates by a Venezuelan and British boundary commission in accordance with International law. Venezuela brought up again the settled claim, during the 1960s cold war period, and during Guyana's Independence period. In 1962, Venezuelan President Rómulo Betancourt resuscitated Venezuela's claim to the disputed territory by declaring the 1899 arbitration award null and void. The result of this complaint led to the Treaty of Geneva of 1966, which was signed by the Governments of Guyana, the United Kingdom and Venezuela. Venezuela calls this region "Zona en Reclamación" (Reclamation Zone) and Venezuelan maps of the national territory routinely include it, drawing it in with dashed lines.

In 2023, a referendum was held in Venezuela which saw 95% of voters approve creating a new state in the disputed area with Guyana's President Irfaan Ali calling it a direct threat on the nation's sovereignty. Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro claims wide support for the move, despite only around 10% of the Venezuelan voting population taking part in the referendum. Both the US and Brazil made signs of supporting Guyana in the territorial dispute, with Brazil sending troops to their border with the Essequibo region. US Southern Command held air exercises with Guyana Defence Forces in Guyana in December 2023.

Specific small disputed areas involving Guyana are Ankoko Island with Venezuela; Corentyne River with Suriname; and Tigri Area or New River Triangle with Suriname. In 1967 a Surinamese survey team was found in the Tigri Area and was forcibly removed. In August 1969 a patrol of the Guyana Defence Force found a survey camp and a partially completed airstrip inside the triangle, and documented evidence of the Surinamese intention to occupy the entire disputed area. After an exchange of gunfire, the Surinamese were driven from the triangle.

Guyana entered the Organisation of American States in 1991.

With Guyana having many groups of Indigenous persons and given the geographical location of the country, the contributions of the Guyanese to the OAS respecting Indigenous people may be significant.

The position of the OAS respecting Indigenous persons developed over the years. "The "OAS has supported and participated in the organisation of Indigenous Leaders Summits of Americas (ILSA)"

The Draft American Declaration of the Rights of the Indigenous Persons appears to be a working document

===== The Double Taxation Relief (CARICOM) Treaty 1994 =====

At a CARICOM Meeting, representatives of Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana respectively signed The Double Taxation Relief (CARICOM) Treaty 1994 on 19 August 1994.

This treaty covered taxes, residence, tax jurisdictions, capital gains, business profits, interest, dividends, royalties and other areas.

On 30 June 2014, Guyana signed a Model 1 agreement with the United States of America in relation to the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA).

This Model 1 agreement includes a reference to the Tax Information Exchange Agreement (Clause 3) which was signed on 22 July 1992 in Georgetown, Guyana intending to exchange tax information on an automatic basis.