Qatar

Pliny the Elder, a Roman writer, documented the earliest account pertaining to the inhabitants of the peninsula around the mid-first century AD; he referred to them as the Catharrei, a designation that may have derived from the name of a prominent local settlement. A century later, Ptolemy produced the first known map to depict the peninsula, referring to it as Catara. The map also referenced a town named "Cadara" to the east of the peninsula. The term "Catara" (inhabitants, Cataraei) was exclusively used until the 18th century, after which "Katara" emerged as the most commonly recognised spelling. Eventually, after several variations—"Katr", "Kattar" and "Guttur"—the modern derivative Qatar was adopted as the country's name.

According to classical linguistic accounts, the term "Qatar" may derive from a type of informal transaction known as muqāṭarah, in which goods were purchased in sealed containers without measuring or weighing the contents, for a fixed price. This practice, also called jazāf, was reportedly widespread in Qatar's markets. Another explanation connects the name to the word qiṭār, meaning camel train, possibly alluding to Qatar's role in historical trade routes.

In Standard Arabic, the name is pronounced [ˈqɑtˤɑr], while in the local dialect, Qatari Arabic, it is [ˈɡɪtˤɑr]. English speakers use different approximate pronunciations as the Arabic pronunciations use sounds not present in English.

=== Prehistory ===

Human habitation in Qatar dates back to 50,000 years ago. Settlements and tools dating back to the Stone Age have been unearthed in the peninsula. Mesopotamian artefacts originating from the Ubaid period (c. 6500–3800 BC) have been discovered in abandoned coastal settlements. Al Da'asa, a settlement located on the western coast of Qatar, is the most important Ubaid site in the country and is believed to have accommodated a small seasonal encampment. Some historians have theorised that the Sumerians may have originated from this region.

Kassite Babylonian material dating back to the second millennium BC found on the Al Khor Islands attests to trade relations between the inhabitants of Qatar and the Kassites in modern-day Bahrain. Among the findings were crushed snail shells and Kassite potsherds. It has been suggested that Qatar is the earliest known site of shellfish dye production, owing to a Kassite purple dye industry which existed on the coast.

In AD 224, the Sasanian Empire gained control over the territories surrounding the Persian Gulf. Qatar played a role in the commercial activity of the Sasanids, contributing at least two commodities: precious pearls and purple dye. Under the Sasanid reign, many of the inhabitants in eastern Arabia were introduced to Christianity following the eastward dispersal of the religion by Mesopotamian Christians (see also Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia). Monasteries were constructed and further settlements were founded during this era. During the latter part of the Christian era, Qatar comprised a region known as 'Beth Qatraye' (Syriac for "house of the Qataris"). The region was not limited to Qatar; it also included Bahrain, Tarout Island, Al-Khatt, and Al-Hasa.

In 628, the Islamic prophet Muhammad sent a Muslim envoy to a ruler in eastern Arabia named Munzir ibn Sawa Al-Tamimi and requested that he and his subjects accept Islam. Munzir obliged his request, and accordingly most of the Arab tribes in the region converted to Islam. In the middle of the century, the Muslim conquest of Persia resulted in the fall of the Sasanian Empire.

Qatar was described as a famous horse and camel breeding centre during the Umayyad period. In the 8th century, it started benefiting from its commercially strategic position in the Persian Gulf and went on to become a centre of pearl trading.

Substantial development in the pearling industry around the Qatari Peninsula occurred during the Abbasid period. Ships voyaging from Basra to India and China would make stops in Qatar's ports during this period. Chinese porcelain, West African coins, and artefacts from Thailand have been discovered in Qatar. Archaeological remains from the 9th century suggest that Qatar's inhabitants used greater wealth to construct higher quality homes and public buildings. Over 100 stone-built houses, two mosques, and an Abbasid fort were constructed in Murwab during this period. As the caliphate's prosperity waned in Iraq, Qatar experienced a corresponding decline.

Qatar is mentioned in 13th-century Muslim scholar Yaqut al-Hamawi's book, Mu'jam Al-Buldan, which alludes to the Qataris' fine striped woven cloaks and their skills in improvement and finishing of spears.

Much of eastern Arabia was controlled by the Usfurids in 1253, but control of the region was seised by the prince of Ormus in 1320. Qatar's pearls provided the kingdom with one of its main sources of income.

In 1515, Manuel I of Portugal vassalised the Kingdom of Ormus. Portugal went on to seize a significant portion of eastern Arabia in 1521.

After the fall of the Jabrid Dynasty with the conquest of Bahrain by the Portuguese, the Arabian coast up to Al Hassa came under the rule and influence of the Portuguese empire. Attempts by the Ottomans to dominate the region were eliminated with the Portuguese reconquest of the castle of Tarout or Al Qatif in 1551. In 1550, the inhabitants of Al-Hasa had voluntarily submitted to the rule of the Ottomans, preferring them to the Portuguese.

Archaeological finds are still being excavated from one of the Portuguese fortresses that served as a base to dominate the region as Ruwayda. The first representation of Qatar appears on the Portuguese map by Luis Lázaro in 1563, showing the "city of Qatar" as a fortress, possibly referring to the fort of Ruwayda.

Having retained a negligible military presence in the area, the Ottomans were expelled by the Bani Khalid tribe and their emirate in 1670.

In 1766, members of the Al Khalifa family of the Utub tribal confederation migrated from Kuwait to Zubarah in Qatar. By the time of their arrival, the Bani Khalid exercised weak authority over the peninsula, notwithstanding the fact that the largest village was ruled by their distant kin. In 1783, Qatar-based Bani Utbah clans and allied Arab tribes invaded and annexed Bahrain from the Persians. The Al Khalifa imposed their authority over Bahrain and retained their jurisdiction over Zubarah.

Following his swearing-in as crown prince of the Emirate of Diriyah in 1788, Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz moved to expand Wahhabi territory eastward towards the Persian Gulf and Qatar. After defeating the Bani Khalid in 1795, the Wahhabi were attacked on two fronts. The Ottomans and Egyptians assaulted the western front, while the Al Khalifa in Bahrain and the Omanis launched an attack against the eastern front. Upon being made aware of the Egyptian advance on the western frontier in 1811, the Wahhabi amir reduced his garrisons in Bahrain and Zubarah in order to redeploy his troops. Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat and Oman, capitalised on this opportunity and raided the Wahhabi garrisons on the eastern coast, setting fire to the fort in Zubarah. The Al Khalifa was effectively returned to power thereafter.

As punishment for piracy, an East India Company vessel bombarded Doha in 1821, destroying the town and forcing hundreds of residents to flee. In 1825, the House of Thani was established with Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani as the first leader.

Although Qatar was considered a dependency of Bahrain, the Al Khalifa faced opposition from the local tribes. In 1867, the Al Khalifa, along with the ruler of Abu Dhabi, sent a massive naval force to Al Wakrah in an effort to crush the Qatari rebels. This resulted in the maritime Qatari–Bahraini War of 1867–68, in which Bahraini and Abu Dhabi forces sacked and looted Doha and Al Wakrah. The Bahraini hostilities were in violation of the Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship of 1861. The joint incursion, in addition to the Qatari counter-attack, prompted British Political Resident, Colonel Lewis Pelly to impose a settlement in 1868. His mission to Bahrain and Qatar and the resulting peace treaty were milestones because they implicitly recognised the distinctness of Qatar from Bahrain and explicitly acknowledged the position of Mohammed bin Thani. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, Pelly negotiated with Qatari sheikhs who were represented by Mohammed bin Thani. The negotiations were the first stage in the development of Qatar as a sheikhdom.

Under military and political pressure from the governor of the Ottoman Vilayet of Baghdad, Midhat Pasha, the ruling Al Thani tribe submitted to Ottoman rule in 1871. The Ottoman government imposed reformist (Tanzimat) measures concerning taxation and land registration to fully integrate these areas into the empire. Despite the disapproval of local tribes, Al Thani continued supporting the Ottoman rule. Qatari-Ottoman relations stagnated, and in 1882 they suffered further setbacks when the Ottomans refused to aid Al Thani in his expedition of Abu Dhabi-occupied Khor Al Adaid and offered only limited support in the Qatari–Abu Dhabi War, mainly due to fear of British intervention on Abu Dhabi's side. In addition, the Ottomans supported the Ottoman subject Mohammed bin Abdul Wahab who attempted to supplant Al Thani as kaymakam of Qatar in 1888. This eventually led Al Thani to rebel against the Ottomans, whom he believed were seeking to usurp control of the peninsula. He resigned as kaymakam and stopped paying taxes in August 1892.

In February 1893, Mehmed Hafiz Pasha arrived in Qatar in the interests of seeking unpaid taxes and accosting Jassim bin Mohammed's opposition to proposed Ottoman administrative reforms. Fearing that he would face death or imprisonment, Jassim retreated to Al Wajbah (16 km or 10 mi west of Doha), accompanied by several tribe members. Mehmed's demand that Jassim disband his troops and pledge his loyalty to the Ottomans was met with refusal. In March, Mehmed imprisoned Jassim's brother and 13 prominent Qatari tribal leaders on the Ottoman corvette Merrikh as punishment for his insubordination. After Mehmed declined an offer to release the captives for a fee of 10,000 liras, he ordered a column of approximately 200 troops to advance towards Jassim's Al Wajbah Fort under the command of Yusuf Effendi, thus signalling the start of the Battle of Al Wajbah.

Effendi's troops came under heavy gunfire by a sizable troop of Qatari infantry and cavalry shortly after arriving at Al Wajbah. They retreated to Shebaka fortress where they were again forced to draw back from a Qatari incursion. After retreating from Shebaka to Al Bidda, the Ottomans were besieged by Jassim's forces, forcing them to surrender, release captives, and secure safe passage for Mehmed Pasha's cavalry to Hofuf. Although Qatar did not gain full independence from the Ottoman Empire, the result of the battle forced a treaty that would later form the basis of Qatar's emerging as an autonomous country within the empire.

By the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, the Ottomans agreed to renounce their claim to Qatar and withdraw their garrison from Doha. With the outbreak of World War I however, nothing was done to carry this out, and the garrison remained in the fort at Doha, although its numbers dwindled as men deserted. In 1915, with the presence of British gunboats in the harbour, Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani (who was pro-British) persuaded the remainder to abandon the fort, and when British troops approached the following morning, they found it deserted.

Qatar became a British protectorate on 3 November 1916 when the United Kingdom signed a treaty with Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani to bring Qatar under its Trucial System of Administration. The treaty reserved foreign affairs and defence to the United Kingdom but allowed internal autonomy. While Abdullah agreed not to enter into any relations with any other power without the prior consent of the British government, the latter guaranteed the protection of Qatar from aggression by sea and provide its 'good offices' in the event of an attack by land. This latter undertaking was left deliberately vague.

On 5 May 1935, while agreeing an oil concession with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Abdullah signed another treaty with the British government which granted Qatar protection against internal and external threats. Oil reserves were first discovered in 1939. Exploitation and development were, however, delayed by World War II.

The focus of British interests in Qatar changed after the Second World War with the independence of India, the creation of Pakistan in 1947, and the development of oil in Qatar. In 1949, the appointment of the first British political officer in Doha, John Wilton, signified a strengthening of Anglo-Qatari relations. Oil exports began in 1949, and oil revenues became the country's main source of revenue; the pearl trade had gone into decline. These revenues were used to fund the expansion and modernisation of Qatar's infrastructure.

When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Persian Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined talks with Bahrain and seven other Trucial States to create the Federation of Arab Emirates. Regional disputes, however, persuaded Qatar and Bahrain to withdraw from the talks and become independent states separate from the Trucial States, which went on to become the United Arab Emirates. The emir, Ahmad bin Ali, promulgated a provisional constitution in April 1970 that declared Qatar an independent, Arab, and Islamic state with sharia as its basic law. Khalifa bin Hamad was named prime minister in May 1970.

Under an agreement with the United Kingdom, on 3 September 1971, the "special treaty arrangements" that were "inconsistent with full international responsibility as a sovereign and independent state" were terminated. Ahmad bin Ali made the announcement of Qatar's independence from his villa in Switzerland. He was deposed on 22 February 1972 by Khalifa bin Hamad, with the tacit support of Britain, Saudi Arabia, and the House of Al Thani.

In 1991, Qatar played a significant role in the Gulf War, particularly during the Battle of Khafji in which Qatari tanks rolled through the streets of the town and provided fire support for the Saudi Arabian National Guard units that were engaging Iraqi Army troops. Qatar allowed coalition troops from Canada to use the country as an airbase to launch aircraft on combat air patrol duty and also permitted air forces from the United States and France to operate in its territories. By the mid-1990s Khalifa bin Hamad was still emir, but day-to-day rule was gradually taken over by his son Hamad bin Khalifa.

In 1995, Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani seized control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, after having secured the support of most senior members of the royal family, as well as that of the United States. During Hamad's reign, the country enacted its first permanent constitution, following the 2003 Qatari constitutional referendum. While Hamad "hailed the event as a great step toward bringing democracy to the country", the constitution actually gave the emir "near-absolute powers", and in practice Hamad ruled an autocratic regime in Qatar. In 1999, Qatar held elections for the first time, to the advisory Central Municipal Council, in which women were also allowed to vote and stand as candidates. This made Qatar the first Gulf country to allow women to vote.

Mehran Kamrava of Georgetown University in Qatar has suggested that Qatar's highly publicized campaign of political liberalisation was meant to help stabilize the regime under Hamad, especially through support from the West, and that once sufficient stabilization was achieved, the guise of domestic liberalisation was largely dropped. Other scholars have also called Hamad's domestic political reforms "largely performative" steps, intended mostly to bolster Qatar's international image without enacting meaningful change, or said that Qatar's "political trajectory reflects a model of selective and symbolic democratization—embracing electoral forms while avoiding their full democratic substance." Although the Ministry of Information was abolished in 1998, with the press occasionally allowed to criticize the economy or the status of foreign workers, journalists continue to face a "draconian system of censorship". It has been noted in scholarship that the Qatari government "made great play" of the abolition of the Ministry of Information promising greater press freedom, and that in reality the step was a "highly symbolic gesture" intended to signal reform to international partners while attempting to "carefully, selectively, and pre-emptively remain in control of content".

An unsuccessful counter-coup was staged in 1996.

Qatar's economy and status as a regional power rapidly grew in the 2000s. According to the UN, the nation's economic growth, measured by GDP, was the fastest in the world during this decade. The basis of this growth lay in the exploitation of natural gas in the North Field during the 1990s. At the same time, the population tripled between 2001 and 2011, mostly from an influx of foreigners.

In 2003, Qatar served as the United States Central Command headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the invasion of Iraq to topple the government of Saddam Hussein. Shortly before the invasion, Qatari government offered sanctuary to Saddam. In March 2005, a suicide bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking the country, which had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. The bombing was carried out by Omar Ahmed Abdullah Ali, an Egyptian resident in Qatar who had suspected ties to Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.

The increased influence of Qatar and its role during the Arab Spring, especially during the 2011 uprisings in Bahrain against King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, worsened longstanding tensions with Saudi Arabia, the neighbouring United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain. In 2011, Qatar joined NATO operations in Libya and reportedly armed Libyan opposition groups against Muammar Gaddafi. It was also a major funder of weapons for rebel groups in the Syrian civil war against Bashar al-Assad. Qatar participated in the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen against the Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh.

In June 2017, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain, Egypt and Yemen broke diplomatic ties with Qatar, accusing Qatar of supporting terrorism. The crisis escalated a dispute over Qatar's support of the Muslim Brotherhood, which is considered a terrorist organisation by some Arab nations, as well as over its ties with Iran. Qatar was expelled from the anti-Houthi coalition. The crisis lead to a strengthening of Qatar's relationship with Iran, which provided significant material and political support, rather than its weakening. The diplomatic crisis ended in January 2021 with the signing of the al-Ula declaration. Qatar did not fulfil any of the original 13 demands, with analysts saying that the Gulf states agreed instead to a vague "joint security declaration".

On 2 December 2010, Qatar won the right to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup from 21 November to 18 December 2022, making it the first Arab and Muslim-majority country to do so, and the third Asian country to host it following the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Japan and South Korea.. The awarding increased further investment and developments within the nation during the 2010s. In June 2013, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani became the emir of Qatar after his father handed over power. Sheikh Tamim has prioritised improving the domestic welfare of citizens, which includes establishing advanced healthcare and education systems, and expanding the country's infrastructure in preparation for the hosting of the 2022 World Cup.

The Qatari peninsula protrudes 160 kilometres (100 mi) into the Persian Gulf, north of Saudi Arabia. It lies between latitudes 24° and 27° N, and longitudes 50° and 52° E. Most of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Persian Gulf.

The highest point is Qurayn Abu al Bawl at 103 metres (338 ft) in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcroppings running north–south from Zekreet through Umm Bab to the southern border. The Jebel Dukhan area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.

Qatar's geography is defined by its flat, dry desert scenery and sunshine all year. The winters are mild, with average temperatures of 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) in January, and the summers are very hot, with temperatures often reaching 40 °C (104 °F). The country only gets 70 millimetres (2.8 in) of rain a year on average, and most of that falls between October and March. These weather conditions make it possible to enjoy outdoor sports and travel for most of the year.

Qatar became part of the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity in 1996. It subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan in 2005. A total of 142 fungal species have been recorded from Qatar. A book recently produced by the Ministry of Environment documents the lizards known or believed to occur in Qatar, based on surveys conducted by an international team of scientists and other collaborators.

Like other members of the UNFCCC, Qatar is supposed to publish details of its greenhouse gas emissions two years after they occur – however as of 2024 the latest official details are for 2007 emissions. According to the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, carbon dioxide emissions per person average over 30 tonnes, one of the highest in the world.

Qatar is officially a constitutional hereditary monarchy, but scholars and observers consider the monarchical regime to be "authoritarian", "autocratic and absolutist", an "absolute monarchy" or even a "total autocracy". The Al Thanis first emerged as one of Qatar's influential and dominant clans in the 1850s, and accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire to strengthen their position against rivals. In 1868, the Al Thani dynasty received British recognition of its rule over the peninsula. Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani became the emir of Qatar in 2013.

The emir holds nearly all executive, legislative, and judicial authority in an autocratic manner under the Constitution of Qatar. He has the exclusive power to appoint the prime minister and cabinet ministers who, together, constitute the Council of Ministers, which is the supreme executive authority in the country. The Council of Ministers also initiates legislation, which is then approved by the Shura Council, which is also fully appointed by the emir.

As of 2024, Qatar was ranked 40 out of 180 countries in the Corruption Perceptions Index.

In 2003, Qatar adopted a constitution that provided for the direct election of 30 of the 45 members of an advisory legislature called the Shura Council, but also outlined it as a body that has "little actual legislative powers". The Shura Council held its first general election in October 2021 after several postponements, but in November 2024 it went back to being fully appointed by the emir, ending the country's "short-lived experiment in electing members of the advisory Shura Council".

According to the 2025 Democracy Report of V-Dem Democracy indices, Qatar was second-last on the Electoral Democracy Index among Middle Eastern countries, and seventh-last worldwide from among the 179 countries rated. Qatari law does not permit the establishment of political bodies or trade unions. Additionally, according to International IDEA's Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Qatar performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political representation, including credible elections, inclusive suffrage and effective parliament.

The country's first elections for the Central Municipal Council—the first-ever elections in Qatar—allowed voting for both men and women, and were intentionally held on 8 March 1999, International Women's Day.

According to Qatar's Constitution, Sharia law is the main source of Qatari legislation, although in practice Qatar's legal system is a mixture of civil law and Sharia. Sharia is applied to family law, inheritance, and several criminal acts (including adultery, robbery, and murder). In some cases, Sharia-based family courts treat a female's testimony as being worth half that of a man. Codified family law was introduced in 2006. Islamic polygyny is permitted.

Judicial corporal punishment is a punishment in Qatar. Only Muslims considered medically fit are liable to have such sentences carried out. Flogging is employed as a punishment for alcohol consumption or illicit sexual relations. Article 88 of the criminal code declares that the penalty for adultery is 100 lashes. Stoning is a legal punishment in Qatar, and apostasy and homosexuality are crimes punishable by the death penalty; however, the penalty has not been carried out for either crime. Blasphemy can result in up to seven years in prison, while proselytising can incur a 10-year sentence.

Alcohol consumption is partially legal; some five-star luxury hotels are allowed to sell alcohol to non-Muslim customers. Muslims are not allowed to consume alcohol, and those caught consuming it are liable to flogging or deportation. Non-Muslim expatriates can obtain a permit to purchase alcohol for personal consumption. The Qatar Distribution Company (a subsidiary of Qatar Airways) is permitted to import alcohol and pork; it operates the only liquor store in the country, which also sells pork to holders of liquor licences. Qatari officials had indicated a willingness to allow alcohol in "fan zones" at the 2022 FIFA World Cup. However, on 18 November, two days before the start of the games, Qatari officials announced alcoholic beverages would not be permitted within the stadiums.

In 2014, a modesty campaign was launched to remind tourists of the country's restrictive dress code. Female tourists were advised not to wear leggings, miniskirts, sleeveless dresses, or short or tight clothing in public. Men were warned against wearing shorts and singlets.

Qatar is divided into eight municipalities. The municipalities are further subdivided into 98 zones, which are in turn subdivided into blocks.