Uzbekistan

The name Uzbegistán appears in the 16th century Tarikh-i Rashidi.

The origin of the word Uzbek remains disputed.

"free", "independent" or "own master/leader", requiring an amalgamation of uz (Turkic: "own"), beg ("master" or "leader")

eponymously named after Oghuz Khagan, also known as Oghuz Beg

A contraction of uğuz, earlier oğuz, that is, the oghuz, or "tribe", amalgamated with bek "oguz-leader".

Some scholars connect the name Uzbek to Özbeg Khan, the ruler of the Golden Horde, whence the Uzbeks migrated into what is now Uzbekistan in the 16th century.

All four have the middle syllable/phoneme being cognate with the Turkic title beg.

The name of the country was often spelled Ўзбекистон in Uzbek Cyrillic or Узбекистан in Russian during Soviet rule.

The region has been referred to by many names over the millennia. The name Uzbekistan first appears in 16th century literature. Other names for the region include Transoxiana, Turkestan, and Bukhara. In the 14th century the region served as the birthplace, home, and capital of Tamerlane. Under Tamerlane, the region was a part of the Timurid Empire which extended from the Black Sea to the Arabian Sea, and as far as Delhi in India.

Central Asia was shaped by multiple Indo-European migrations. During early antiquity, the region was inhabited by nomadic Scythian tribes who came from the Eurasian Steppe, which includes modern Uzbekistan, sometime during the first millennium BC. These nomadic tribes built an extensive irrigation system along the rivers when they settled in the region. At this time, cities such as Bukhoro (Bukhara) and Samarqand (Samarkand) emerged as centres of government and high culture. By the fifth century BC, the Bactrian, Sogdian, and Tokharian states dominated the region.

As East Asia began to develop its silk trade with the West, using an extensive network of cities and rural settlements in the province of Transoxiana, and further east in what is today Xinjiang, the Sogdian intermediaries became the wealthiest of these merchants. As a result of this trade on what became known as the Silk Road, Bukhara and Samarkand eventually became extremely wealthy cities, and at times Transoxiana (Mawarannahr) was one of the most influential and powerful provinces of antiquity.

The Achaemenid emperors Cyrus the Great, and later Darius the Great, exerted control over the Amu Darya, incorporating Bactria and Chorasmia as satrapies. Historical Iranian texts later record the region as Turan. In 327 BC, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire provinces of Sogdiana and Bactria, which contained the territories of modern Uzbekistan. Popular resistance to the conquest was fierce, causing Alexander's army to be bogged down in the region that became the northern part of the Macedonian Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. The kingdom was replaced with the Yuezhi dominated Kushan Empire in the first century BC. For many centuries thereafter the region of Uzbekistan was ruled by the Hephthalites and Sassanid empires, as well as by other empires, such as the First Turkic Khaganate established by the Turkic Gokturk peoples.

In the eighth century, Transoxiana, the territory between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, was conquered by the Arabs under Qutayba ibn Muslim, soon becoming a focal point during the Islamic Golden Age.

In the ninth and tenth centuries, Transoxiana became part of the Samanid Empire. In the tenth century it was gradually dominated by the Turkic-ruled Karakhanids, as well as their Seljuk successors, another Turkic dynasty.

Karakhanids and Seljuks were succeeded by the Turkic Anushtegin dynasty; the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmian Empire under Genghis Khan during the 13th century brought devastating effects over the region. The invasions of Bukhara, Samarkand, Urgench and other cities resulted in massacres and unprecedented destruction, which saw parts of Khwarezmia being completely razed.

Following the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, the Mongol Empire was divided among his four sons and family members. Despite the potential for serious fragmentation, an orderly succession continued for several generations. Control of most of Transoxiana stayed in the hands of the direct descendants of Chagatai Khan, the second son of Genghis Khan. Orderly succession, prosperity, and internal peace prevailed in the Chagatai Khanate, and the eastern section of the Mongol Empire remained a strong and united kingdom, known as the Golden Horde.

One tribal chieftain, Timur (Tamerlane), emerged from struggles in the 1380s as the dominant force in Transoxiana. Although he was not a descendant of Genghis Khan, Timur became the de facto ruler of Transoxiana and proceeded to conquer all of western Central Asia, Iran, the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and the southern steppe region north of the Aral Sea. He also invaded Russia before dying during an invasion of China in 1405. Timur was also known for his extreme brutality, and his conquests were accompanied by genocidal massacres in the cities he occupied.

Timur initiated the last flowering of Transoxiana by gathering numerous artisans and scholars from the vast lands he had conquered into his capital, Samarkand, thus imbuing his empire with a rich Perso-Islamic culture. During his reign and the reigns of his immediate descendants, a wide range of religious and palatial construction masterpieces were undertaken in Samarkand and other population centres.

Timur also established an exchange of medical discoveries and became the patron of physicians, scientists, and artists from neighbouring countries such as India; his grandson Ulugh Beg was one of the world's first great astronomers. It was during the Timurid dynasty that Turkic, in the form of the Chaghatai dialect, became a literary language in its own right in Transoxiana, although the Timurids were Persianate in culture. The greatest Chaghataid writer, Ali-Shir Nava'i, was active in the city of Herat (now in north-western Afghanistan) in the second half of the 15th century.

The Timurid state quickly split in half after the death of Timur. The chronic internal fighting of the Timurids attracted the attention of the Uzbek nomadic tribes living to the north of the Aral Sea. In 1501, the Uzbek forces began a wholesale invasion of Transoxiana. The slave trade in the Emirate of Bukhara became prominent and was established at this time. The Khanate of Bukhara was eventually invaded by the foreign government of Persia in 1740, and then became a part of the Persian empire of the day.

Before the arrival of the Russians, present-day Uzbekistan was divided between the Emirate of Bukhara and the khanates of Khiva and Kokand.

In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand and spread into Central Asia. There were 210,306 Russians living in Uzbekistan in 1912. The 'Great Game' period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. A second, less intensive phase followed the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. At the start of the 19th century, there were some 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) separating British India and the outlying regions of Tsarist Russia. Much of the land between was unmapped.

By the beginning of 1920, Central Asia was firmly in the hands of Russia and, despite some early resistance to the Bolsheviks, Uzbekistan and the rest of Central Asia became a part of the Soviet Union. On 27 October 1924, the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was created. From 1941 to 1945, during World War II, 1,433,230 people from Uzbekistan fought in the Red Army against Nazi Germany. As many as 263,005 Uzbek soldiers died in the battlefields of the Eastern Front, and 32,670 went missing in action.

During the Soviet–Afghan War, about 65,000 Uzbek troops fought in neighbouring Afghanistan. At least 1,500 lost their lives and thousands more were paralysed.

On 20 June 1990, Uzbekistan declared its state sovereignty. On 31 August 1991, Uzbekistan declared independence following the failed coup attempt in Moscow. 1 September was proclaimed National Independence Day. The Soviet Union was dissolved on 26 December of that year. Islam Karimov, who had been first secretary of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan since 1989, was elected president of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic in 1990. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, he was elected president of independent Uzbekistan. An authoritarian ruler, Karimov died in September 2016. He was replaced by his long-time Prime Minister, Shavkat Mirziyoyev, on 14 December of the same year. On 6 November 2021, Mirziyoyev was sworn in for a second term after gaining a landslide victory in the presidential election.

Uzbekistan has an area of 448,978 square kilometres (173,351 sq mi). It is the 56th largest country in the world by area and the 40th by population. Among the CIS countries, it is the fourth largest by area and the second largest by population.

Uzbekistan lies between latitudes 37° and 46° N, and longitudes 56° and 74° E. It stretches 1,425 kilometres (885 mi) from west to east and 930 kilometres (580 mi) from north to south. Bordering Kazakhstan and the Aralkum Desert (former Aral Sea) to the north and northwest, Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to the southwest, Tajikistan to the southeast, and Kyrgyzstan to the northeast, Uzbekistan is one of the largest Central Asian states and the only Central Asian state to border all the other four. Uzbekistan also shares a short border (less than 150 km or 93 mi) with Afghanistan to the south. Uzbekistan is home to six terrestrial ecoregions: Alai-Western Tian Shan steppe, Gissaro-Alai open woodlands, Badghyz and Karabil semi-desert, Central Asian northern desert, Central Asian riparian woodlands, and Central Asian southern desert.

Uzbekistan is a dry, doubly landlocked country. The only other doubly landlocked country is Liechtenstein. In addition, due to its location within a series of endorheic basins, none of its rivers lead to the sea. Less than 10% of its territory is intensively cultivated irrigated land in river valleys and oases. The Aral Sea, which has been largely desiccated by cotton production established in the Soviet era, is considered one of the world's worst environmental disasters. The rest is the vast Kyzylkum Desert and mountains.

As published in its book of records in 2007, the generally accepted highest point in Uzbekistan is Khazret Sultan at 4,643 metres (15,233 ft) above sea level.

The climate in Uzbekistan is continental, with little precipitation expected annually (100–200 millimetres, or 3.9–7.9 inches). The average summer high temperature tends to be 40 °C (104 °F), while the average winter low temperature is around −23 °C (−9 °F).

Uzbekistan has a rich and diverse natural environment. However, decades of Soviet policies in pursuit of greater cotton production have resulted in a catastrophic scenario with the agricultural industry being the main contributor to the pollution and devastation of both air and water in the country.

The Aral Sea was once the fourth-largest inland sea on Earth, humidifying the surrounding air and irrigating the arid land. Since the 1960s, when the overuse of the Aral Sea water began, it has shrunk to about 10% of its former area and divided into parts, with only the southern part of the narrow western lobe of the South Aral Sea remaining permanently in Uzbekistan. Much of the water was and continues to be used for the irrigation of cotton fields, a crop requiring a large amount of water to grow.

Due to the Aral Sea loss, high salinity and contamination of the soil with heavy elements are especially widespread in Karakalpakstan, the region of Uzbekistan adjacent to the Aral Sea. The bulk of the nation's water resources is used for farming, which accounts for nearly 84% of the water use and contributes to high soil salinity. Heavy use of pesticides and fertilisers for cotton growing further aggravates soil contamination.

According to the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), climate risk management in Uzbekistan should consider its ecological safety.

Numerous oil and gas deposits have been discovered in the south of the country.

Uzbekistan has also been home to seismic activity, as evidenced by the 1902 Andijan earthquake, 2011 Fergana Valley earthquake, and 1966 Tashkent earthquake.

A dam collapse at Sardoba Reservoir in May 2020 flooded 35,000 hectares of land. Six people died and 111,000 evacuated with recovery estimates over 1.5 trillion som. The devastation extended into areas inside neighbouring Kazakhstan.

The air pollution situation in Uzbekistan throughout the 21st century has been characterised by steady deterioration, reflecting a long history of environmental problems. The increase in pollution began with local domestic emissions in the early 20th century, but Soviet industrialisation made a significant contribution, especially the evacuation of enterprises in the 1940s and the subsequent development of heavy industry, oil refining and chemical production in the 1950s–1980s. The decline in the level of the Aral Sea has created an additional source of salt and dust storms. In the post-Soviet period, the structure of pollution shifted: in the 2000s, the dominant factor was the growth of motor transport and the use of low-quality fuel, and in the 2010s, it was the increase in PM2.5 concentrations due to the construction boom and climatic conditions.

By 2020–2025, the combination of transport emissions, domestic heating, dust and meteorological inversions had led to a systemic environmental crisis, with Tashkent regularly ranking among the most polluted cities in the world. According to the World Bank, the average annual pollution level in the capital is more than six times higher than the WHO recommended level (5 μg/m³).

Uzbekistan's socioeconomic situation and geographic location make it highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change—particularly water stress—as much of the country consists of vast desert plains and arid regions. According to a risk assessment by The World Bank, more than a fifth of Uzbekistan's projected 2030 population (8 million people) will live in areas classified as very high climate‑risk (p. 11). The country has made progress in the agricultural sector, risk management, and adaptation and resilience strategies, but important gaps remain in the resilience of forest ecosystems, water‑resource management, business and financial continuity planning, and disaster communication. Uzbekistan also lacks an overarching national climate policy, limiting climate action to sector‑specific efforts.

Climate impacts on agriculture are already visible: crops have been affected differentially by temperature and water‑stress changes. Maize, potatoes, rice, watermelons, and wheat may experience positive yield changes, while cotton—the country's second most important crop—and high‑revenue fruit crops such as apples, cherries, and apricots are expected to face negative effects (p. 7).

At the same time, reforms are underway to support a transition toward a lower‑carbon economy, even as economic growth remains dependent on natural resources. Key solutions include expanding access to financing for lower‑income populations and improving access to safe sanitation, universal health care, information and communication technology, and social protections (p. 1).

After Uzbekistan declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, an election was held, and Islam Karimov was elected as the first President of Uzbekistan on 29 December 1991. The elections of the Oliy Majlis (Parliament or Supreme Assembly) were held under a resolution adopted by the 16th Supreme Soviet in 1994. In that year, the Supreme Soviet was replaced by the Oliy Majlis. The third elections for the bicameral 150-member Oliy Majlis, the Legislative Chamber, and the 100-member Senate for five-year terms, were held on 27 December 2009. The second elections were held from December 2004 to January 2005. The Oliy Majlis was unicameral up to 2004. Its size increased from 69 deputies (members) in 1994 to 120 in 2004–05 and currently stands at 150.

Islam Karimov's first presidential term was extended to 2000 through a referendum. He was subsequently re-elected in 2000, 2007, and 2015, each time winning over 90% of the vote. However, most international observers refused to participate in the electoral process and dismissed the results as failing to meet democratic standards.

A 2002 referendum introduced a bicameral parliament, consisting of a lower house (the Oliy Majlis) and an upper house (the Senate), with members of the lower house serving as full-time legislators. Elections for the new parliament were held on 26 December 2002.

Following Karimov's death on 2 September 2016, the Oliy Majlis appointed Prime Minister Shavkat Mirziyoyev as interim president. While the constitution designated Senate Chairman Nigmatilla Yuldashev as the rightful successor, he declined the position, citing Mirziyoyev's extensive experience. In the December 2016 presidential election, Mirziyoyev was officially elected with 88.6% of the vote and was sworn in on 14 December. Deputy Prime Minister Abdulla Aripov then succeeded him as prime minister.

As president, Mirziyoyev replaced most of Karimov's officials and called for the inclusion of younger, patriotic individuals in government. Over time, he distanced himself from Karimov's policies, visiting various regions and cities to oversee reforms. Analysts and Western media have compared his leadership style to that of Deng Xiaoping and Mikhail Gorbachev, describing his tenure as a potential "Uzbek Spring".

According to International IDEA's Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Uzbekistan performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in local democracy, judicial independence and free political parties. The V-Dem Democracy Indices described Uzbekistan as a closed autocracy in 2024.

Uzbekistan is divided into twelve regions (viloyatlar, singular viloyat, compound noun viloyati e.g., Toshkent viloyati, Samarqand viloyati, etc.), one autonomous republic (respublika, compound noun respublikasi e.g. Qoraqalpogʻiston Muxtor Respublikasi, Karakalpakstan Autonomous Republic, etc.), and one independent city (shahar, compound noun shahri, e.g., Toshkent shahri, Tashkent City). Names are given below in Uzbek, and Karakalpak languages when applicable, although numerous variations of the transliterations of each name exist.

The regions are further divided into districts (tuman).

Uzbekistan joined the Commonwealth of Independent States in December 1991. However, it is opposed to reintegration and withdrew from the CIS collective security arrangement in 1999. Since that time, Uzbekistan has participated in the CIS peacekeeping force in Tajikistan and in UN-organised groups to help resolve the Tajikistan and Afghanistan conflicts, both of which it sees as posing threats to its own stability.

Previously close to Washington (which gave Uzbekistan half a billion dollars in aid in 2004, about a quarter of its military budget), the government of Uzbekistan has recently restricted American military use of the airbase at Karshi-Khanabad for air operations in neighbouring Afghanistan. Uzbekistan was an active supporter of U.S. efforts against worldwide terrorism.

The relationship between Uzbekistan and the United States began to deteriorate after the so-called "colour revolutions" in Georgia and Ukraine (and to a lesser extent Kyrgyzstan). When the U.S. joined in a call for an independent international investigation of the bloody events at Andijan, the relationship further declined, and President Islam Karimov changed the political alignment of the country to bring it closer to Russia and China.

In late July 2005, the government of Uzbekistan ordered the United States to vacate an airbase in Karshi-Kanabad (near Uzbekistan's border with Afghanistan) within 180 days. Karimov had offered use of the base to the U.S. shortly after 9/11. It is also believed by some Uzbeks that the protests in Andijan were brought about by the UK and U.S. influences in the area of Andijan. This is another reason for the hostility between Uzbekistan and the West.

Uzbekistan is a member of the United Nations (UN) (since 2 March 1992), the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC), Partnership for Peace (PfP), and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). It belongs to the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) (comprising the five Central Asian countries, Azerbaijan, Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, and Pakistan). In 1999, Uzbekistan joined the GUAM alliance (Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova), which was formed in 1997 (making it GUUAM), but pulled out of the organisation in 2005.

Uzbekistan is also a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) and hosts the SCO's Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) in Tashkent. Uzbekistan joined the new Central Asian Cooperation Organisation (CACO) in 2002. The CACO consists of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. It is a founding member of, and remains involved in, the Central Asian Union, formed with Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and joined in March 1998 by Tajikistan.

In December 1994 Uzbekistan applied for the World Trade Organization membership and received an observer status to start the accession process. The Working Party on the Accession of Uzbekistan to the WTO held its fourth meeting on 7 July 2020—almost 15 years after its last formal meeting.

In September 2006, UNESCO presented Islam Karimov an award for Uzbekistan's preservation of its rich culture and traditions. Despite criticism, this seems to be a sign of improving relationships between Uzbekistan and the West.

The month of October 2006 also saw a decrease in the isolation of Uzbekistan from the West. The EU announced that it was planning to send a delegation to Uzbekistan to talk about human rights and liberties, after a long period of hostile relations between the two. Although it is equivocal about whether the official or unofficial version of the Andijan Massacre is true, the EU is evidently willing to ease its economic sanctions against Uzbekistan. Nevertheless, it is generally assumed among Uzbekistan's population that the government will stand firm in maintaining its close ties with the Russian Federation and in its theory that the 2004–2005 protests in Uzbekistan were promoted by the US and UK.

In January 2008, Lola Karimova-Tillyaeva was appointed to her current role as Uzbekistan's ambassador to UNESCO. Karimova-Tillyaeva and her team have been instrumental in promoting inter-cultural dialogue by increasing European society's awareness of Uzbekistan's cultural and historical heritage.